LIBRARY 


OF  THE 


MASSACHUSETTS 

AGRICULTURAL 

COLLEGE 


SOURCE..      499 

B93 
1840 


:ciAL  ajiiECTiQm 

ft  ARCHIVES 


Zu.uds . 


FARMER'S    COMPANION; 


ESSAYS 


ON    THE    PRINCIPLES    AND    PRACTICE 


AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 


THE    ADDRESS, 

PREPARED    TO    BE    DELIVERED    BEFORE    THE   AGRICULTURAL 

AND    HORTICULTURAL    SOCIETIES    OF    jVEW    HAVEN 

COUNTY,   CONNECTICUT, 

AND 

AN    APPENDIX, 

CONTAINING 
TABLES  AND  OTHER  MATTER  USEFUL  TO  THE  FARMER. 


SECOND  EDITION. 


BY  THE  LATE  HONORABLE  JESSE  BUEL, 

CONDUCTOR  OF    'THE  CULTIVATOR.' 


BOSTON : 

MARSH,    CAPEN,    LYON,    AND    WEBB 

1840. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1839,  by 

Marsh,  Capen,  Lyon,  and  Webb, 
in  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  Massachusetts. 


EDUCATION  PRESS. 


PREFACE. 

My  prominent  object,  in  presenting  this  volume  to  the  pub- 
lic, is  to  aid  in  the  improvement  of  American  Husbandry. 
Even  he  that  has  received  but  the  one  talent,  is  bound  to 
put  it  to  interest  for  the  benefit  of  his  country.  Influenced 
by  this  consideration,  and  the  almost  total  deficiency  of 
books  upon  American  husbandry,  for  school  and  rural  libra- 
ries, I  have  been  induced  to  send  abroad  this  volume,  in  the 
hope,  that  it  will  contribute,  in  some  degree,  to  improve  and 
elevate  this  primary  branch  of  national  industry.  Should  it 
be  favorably  received,  I  propose  to  prepare  another  volume, 
treating  particularly  of  the  management  of  Tillage  Crops, 
the  Garden,  the  Orchard,  &c. 

Bred  to  a  mechanical  business,  I  took  up  Agriculture, 
more  than  twenty  years  ago,  from  choice,  as  the  future  busi- 
ness of  my  life.  Without  the  pretensions  or  conceits  which 
we  are  all  apt  to  acquire  in  the  long  practice  of  a  business, 
I  began  farming  with  a  consciousness  that  I  had  every  thing 
to  learn,  and  that  the  eyes  of  my  neighbors  would  be  quick 
to  detect  faults  in  my  practice.  I  at  once,  therefore,  sought 
to  acquire  a  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  my  new  busi- 
ness, and  of  the  practice  of  the  most  enlightened  and  suc- 
cessful farmers.  These  I  found  in  books  and  agricultural 
periodicals  ;  and  by  these  I  have  been  greatly  benefited. 
Although  it  does  not  become  me  to  herald  my  success,  I 
will  venture  to  say,  to  encourage  others,  and  particularly 
the  young,  in  the  work  of  self-instruction  and  improvement, 
that  my  lands,  which  are  light  and  sandy,  and  which  cost, 
in  an  uncultivated  state,  thirty  dollars  an  acre,  are  now 
worth  two  hundred  dollars  an  acre,  for  farming  purposes  ; 
or,  in  other  words,  that  the  net  profit  of  their  culture 
exceeds  the  interest  of  two  hundred  dollars  per  acre. 


4  PREFACE. 

I  make  no  pretension  to  scientific  or  literary  attainments, 
other  than  such  as  men  acquire  in  the  active  business  of 
life.  I  write  as  I  think  and  practise  ;  and  have  endeavored 
to  adapt  my  style  to  the  capacities  of  common  readers.  In 
detailing  the  operations  of  the  farm,  I  have  endeavored  to 
explain  the  principles  on  which  these  operations  are  founded. 
Indeed,  so  far  as  my  ability  would  permit,  I  have  endeavor- 
ed to  unite  science  and  art,  as  I  think  they  ever  ought  to  be 
united,  in  all  the  business  of  farming  of  which  I  have  treated. 

The  great  objects  of  the  farmer  should  be,  to  obtain  the 
greatest  returns  for  his  labor,  without  deteriorating  the  fertilitij 
of  the  soil  ;  and  to  restore  fertility ,  in  the  most  economical  way, 
where  it  has  been  impaired,  or  destroyed,  by  bad  husbandry. 
It  has  been  my  aim  to  give  instruction  upon  these  points,  and 
to  explain  the  principles  upon  which  my  recommendations 
are  based,  and  upon  which  my  individual  practice  has  been 
founded.  J.  Buel. 

Albany,  September,  1839. 


NOTE    BY    THE   PUBLISHERS. 

Scarcely  had  the  ink  with  which  this  volume  was  written  become  dry,  ere 
we  were  called  upon  to  mourn  the  loss  of  its  intelligent  and  highly-respected 
Author,  who,  while  on  a  mission  of  good  to  his  Agricultural  brethren,  was  sud- 
denly cut  off,  in  the  mid-day  career  of  his  usefulness,  at  Daubury,  Con.,  October  6, 
1839,  after  an  illness  of  a  few  days'  continuance.  The  high  estimation  in  which  he 
was  held,  is  amply  evinced  by  the  expressions  of  regret  for  his  loss,  and  of 
respect  for  his  memory  and  worth,  that  have  appeared  in  the  public  prints 
throughout  the  Union.  He  had  long  been  identified  with  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant interests  of  our  country,  and  more  recently  shone  as  an  ardent  advocate 
of  another  equally  as  important  interest.  After  a  careful  examination  of  the 
various  projects  that  have  been  devised  for  furnishing  School  Districts  with  suita- 
ble Libraries,  he  became  fully  convinced  of  the  superiority  of  the  Massachusetts 
plan,  and  accordingly  repeatedly  expressed,  through  the  columns  of  the  Cultiva- 
tor, his  decided  preference  for  '  The  School  Library'  now  publishing  under  the 
sanction  of  the  Massachusetts  Board  of  Education,  and,  as  a  still  stronger  evi- 
dence of  his  preference,  he  prepared  for  the  larger  Series  the  present  volume. 

During  the  past  season,  he  compiled  a  volume,  consisting  of  selections  from 
the  columns  of  the  Cultivator  ;  permission  to  print  which  was  by  him  granted  to 
the  Publishers  of  'The  School  Library,'  but  they  preferring  a  freshly  written 
and  original  work,  were  favored  with  this.  It  was  the  intention  of  Judge  Buel 
during  the  coming  winter,  to  follow  this  with  another  work  on  matters  interest- 
ing to  the  Farmer  and  general  reader,  but  the  All-wise  Disposer  of  events  has 
seen  fit  to  order  differently,  and  this  volume,  tlierefore,  as  his  last  and  most 
important  work,  must  be  looked  upon  as  a  rich  legacy  by  him  bequeathed  to 
the  friends  of  Agriculture  and  Education,  and  as  an  earnest  of  what,  had  his 
life  been  spared,  he  would  have  continued  to  do,  for  the  advancement  of  the  two 
interests,  for  whose  success  his  earnest  aspirations  were  sent  up. 

A  call  having  been  made  for  this  work,  the  Publishers  have  been  induced  to 
issue  the  present  edition  in  advance  of  that  designed  for  'The  School  Library.' 

Boston,  November,  1839. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER   I. 

Page. 

Importance  of  Agriculture  to  a  Nation,     ....  9 

CHAPTER  II. 

The  Improvement  of  our  Agriculture   practicable 

and  necessary, 16 

CHAPTER  III. 

Some  of  the  Principles  of  the  New  and  Improved 
Husbandry, 21 

CHAPTER  IV. 

Agriculture  considered  as  an  Employment,    ...  26 

^1.  As  a  Means  of  obtaining  Wealth,  ...  27 
§  2.  As  promotive  of  Health  and  the  Develope- 

mentof  the  Mind, 28 

§3.  As  a  Means  of  individual  Happiness,  .  .  32 
^4.  As  a  Means  of  enabling  us  to  fulfil  the 

temporal  Duties  of  Life, 33 

CHAPTER  V. 
Earths  and  Soils, 35 

CHAPTER  VI. 
Improvement  of  the  Soil. — ^Preliminary  Operations,         53 

CHAPTER   VII. 
Analogy  between  Animal  and  Vegetable  Nutrition,         57 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

Further  Improvement  of  the  Soil,     ......         62 

1* 


6  CONTENTS*. 

CHAPTER  IX. 

Improvement  of  the  Soil  by  Animal  and  Vegetable 

Manures, 66 

CHAPTER  X. 

Improvement  by  Mineral  Manures, 78 

CHAPTER  XI. 

Improvement  by  Draining, 92 

CHAPTER  XII. 

Operations  of  Draining, 98 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

Principles  of  Tillage, 112 

CHAPTER  XIV. 

Operations  of  Tillage, 124 

^1.  The  Plough, 124 

^  2.  Rules  for  Ploughmen, 141 

^3.  The  Harrow, 144 

^  4.  The  Roller, 148 

§  5.  The  Cultivator, 150 

§  6.  The  Drill  Barrow, 151 

CHAPTER  XV. 

Alternation  of  Crops, 152 

CHAPTER  XVI. 

Root  Culture, 163 

CHAPTER  XVII. 

On  substituting  Fallow  Crops  for  naked  Fallows     .        169 

CHAPTER  XVIII. 

On  the  Adaptation  of  particular  Crops  to   certain 

Soils, 182 

CHAPTER  XIX. 

Effects  of  Cropping  and  Manuring, 186 

CHAPTER  XX. 

Rules  and  Suggestions  in  Farming, 194 


CONTENTS.  7 

CHAPTER  XXI. 

On  the  Improvement  of  Grass-lands, 204 

^1.  Of  Pastures, 205 

^2.  Of  Meadows 208 

CHAPTER  XXII. 

On  the  Cultivation  of  Grasses, 211 

%  1.  Herbage  Plants, 212 

^  2.  Cultivated  Grasses, 223 

Table   of  the    comparative  Product   and  Value  of 

Grasses, 235 

CHAPTER  XXIII. 
The  Atmosphere,  and  its  Uses  to  the  Husbandman,       237 

CHAPTER  XXIV. 
On  the  Germination  of  Seeds, 246 

CHAPTER  XXV. 
On  Stall-feeding  Cattle, 249 

CHAPTER  XXVI. 
The  Economy  of  cutting  up  Corn, 251 

CHAPTER  XXVII. 
On  Rural  Embellishment, 253 

Address,  prepared  to  be  delivered  before  the  Agri- 
cultural and  Horticultural  Societies  of  New  Ha- 
ven County,  Con., 261 

Appendix. — Collections  of  Facts. 

Mathematics  and  Physics, 283 

Measures  of  Length, 284 

Weights, 286 

Measures  of  Capacity, 286 

Interesting  Facts  in  Chemistry, 287 

Philosophical  Facts, 291 

Tables.     Number  of  Bushels  of  Marl  necessary  to 

give  1  per  cent,  of  Carbonate  of  Lime,  292 

Breadths  and  Lengths  of  an  Acre,       .     .  293 
Comparison    of  American,    Scotch,   and 

Irish  Acre, 293 


8 


CONTENTS. 


Tables.     Number  of  Hills  or  Plants  in  an  Acre,     .  294 

Contents  of  an  Acre  of  Land,  ....  296 

Foreign  Coins,  &c., 296 

Definitions  of  Terms  used  in  Agriculture,       .  297 

Glossary  of  Chemical  Terms, 301 


FARMER'S   COMPANION. 


CHAPTER   I. 

THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  AGRICULTURE  TO  A  NATION. 

There  is  no  business  of  life  which  so  highly  conduces 
to  the  prosperity  of  a  nation,  and  to  the  happiness  of  its 
entire  population,  as  that  of  cultivating  the  soil.  Agricul- 
ture may  be  regarded,  says  the  great  Sully,  as  the  breasts 
from  which  the  state  derives  support  and  nourishment. 
Agriculture  is  truly  our  nursing  mother,  which  gives  food, 
and  growth,  and  wealth,  and  moral  health  and  character, 
to  our  country.  It  may  be  considered  the  great  wheel 
which  moves  all  the  machinery  of  society  ;  and  that 
whatever  gives  to  this  a  new  impulse,  communicates  a 
corresponding  impetus  to  the  thousand  minor  wheels  of 
interest  which  it  propels  and  regulates.  While  the  other 
classes  of  the  community  are  directly  dependant  upon 
agriculture,  for  a  regular  and  sufficient  supply  of  the 
means  of  subsistence,  the  agriculturist  is  able  to  supply 
all  the  absolute  wants  of  life  from  his  own  labors  ;  though 
he  derives  most  of  his  pleasures  and  profits  from  an  in- 
terchange of  the  products  of  labor  with  the  other  classes 
of  society.  Agriculture  is  called  the  parent  of  arts,  not 
only  because  it  was  the  first  art  practised  by  man,  but 
because  the  other  arts  are  its  legitimate  offspring,  and 
cannot  continue  long  to  exist  without  it.  It  is  the  great 
business  of  civilized  life,  and  gives  employment  to  a  vast 
majority  of  almost  every  people. 

The  substantial  prosperity  of  a  country  is  always  in 
the  ratio  of  its  agricultural  industry  and  wealth.  Com- 
merce and  manufactures  may  give  temporary  consequence 


10  THE   IMPORTANCE    OF 

to  a  State,  but  these  are  always  a  precarious  dependance. 
They  are  efteminating  and  corrupting  ;  and,  unless  back- 
ed by  a  prosperous  agricultural  population,  they  engender 
the  elements  of  speedy  decay  and  ruin.  Venice,  Genoa, 
Portugal,  Spain,  &c.,  each  in  turn  rose  to  wealth  and 
power  by  commercial  enterprise.  But  they  all  now  ex- 
hibit melancholy  evidences  of  fallen  greatness.  They 
have  fallen,  in  succession,  from  their  high  standing,  vic- 
tims to  the  more  robust  energies  of  rival  powers,  or  to 
the  enervating  and  corrupting  influence  of  commercial 
cupidity.  They  exhibit  nothing  now,  in  their  political  or 
social  institutions,  and  but  little  in  their  agriculture  or 
in  the  useful  arts,  that  can  be  admired  or  coveted,  by  the 
citizens  of  our  free  country.  Great  Britain  has  now- 
become  ascendant  in  commerce  and  manufactures,  yet  her 
greatness  in  these  sources  of  power  and  opulence,  is 
primarily  and  principally  owing  to  the  excellent  condition 
of  her  agriculture  ;  without  which  she  would  not  be  able 
to  sustain  her  manufactures  or  her  commerce,  in  their 
present  flourishing  state,  or  long  retain  her  immense 
foreign  possessions,  or  any  thing  like  her  present  popula- 
tion. Only  one  third  of  her  inhabitants  are  said  to  be 
employed  in  agriculture  ;  yet  the  labors  of  this  one  third, 
such  is  the  high  condition  of  her  husbandry,  suflice  to  fur- 
nish subsistence  for  the  whole.  Five  millions,  of  all  ages, 
produce  annually,  from  her  limited  soil,  seven  hundred 
millions  worth  of  agricultural  produce,  averaging  about  one 
hundred  and  forty  dollars  for  each  man,  woman,  and  child 
of  her  agricultural  population.  The  recently-published  let- 
ters of  the  Rev.  Dr.  Humphrey  are  so  conclusive  and  so 
instructive"  upon  this  subject,  not  only  in  regard  to  the 
importance  of  agriculture  to  a  nation,  but  as  showing  the 
susceptibility  of  this  art  of  high  improvement  and  great 
productiveness,  that  we  here  quote  an  extract  in  illustra- 
tion of  what  we  have  stated. 

"It  is  the  opinion  of  competent  judges,"  says  Dr. 
Humphrey,  "  that  the  advances  made  in  the  agriculture 
of  Great  Britain,  during  the  last  seventy  or  eighty  years, 
are  scarcely  exceeded  by  the  improven:ient  and  extension 
of  its   manufactures,  within  the  same  period ;  and  that  to 


AGRICULTURE   TO  A  NATION.  11 

these  advances,  no  other  old-settled  country  furnishes  any 
parallel.  That  they  have  been  very  rapid  indeed,  the 
following  figures  and  comparisons  abundantly  show  :  In 
1760,  the  total  growth  of  all  kinds  of  grain  in  England 
and  Wales,  was  about  120,000,000  bushels.  To  this 
should  be  added,  perhaps,  30,000,000  for  Scotland — 
making  a  total  of  150,000,000.  In  1S35,  the  quantity  in 
both  kingdoms  could  not  have  been  less  than  340,000,000 
bushels.  In  1755,  the  population  of  the  whole  Island 
did  not  much,  if  any,  exceed  7.500,000.  In  1831,  it 
had  risen  to  16,525,180,  being  an  increase  of  9,000,000, 
or  120  per  cent.  !  Now,  the  improvements  in  agriculture 
have  more  than  kept  pace  with  this  prodigious  increase 
of  demand  for  its  various  productions  ;  for  it  is  agreed  on 
all  hands,  that  the  16,500,000,  or  rather  the  17,500,000, 
(for  more  than  a  million  has  been  added  since  1831,)  are 
much  fuller  fed,  and  on  provisions  of  a  better  quality, 
than  the  7,500,000  were  in  1755.  Nor  is  Great  Britain 
indebted  at  all,  at  present,  to  foreign  markets  for  her 
supphes.  Since  1832,  she  has  imported  no  grain  worth 
mentioning  ;  and  till  within  the  last  six  months,  prices  have 
been  so  exceedingly  depressed,  as  to  call  forth  loud  com- 
plaints from  the  wdiole  agricultural  interest  of  the  country. 
England  is,  at  this  moment,  so  far  from  wanting  any  of 
our  bread-stuffs,  if  we  had  them  to  export,  that  she  has 
been  supplying  us  all  winter  liberally  from  her  own  grana- 
ries ;  and,  according  to  the  latest  advices,  she  has  still 
bread  enough,  and  to  spare.  Again,  it  is  estimated  by 
British  writers,  of  high  authority,  that  the  subsistence  of 
9,000,000  people  costs,  in  raw  produce,  no  less  than 
£72,000,000,  or  <£8  for  each  individual,  per  annum. 
According  to  this  estimate,  the  annual  product  of  this 
great  branch  of  national  industry  is  ,^350,000,000  more 
at  present  than  it  was  in  1755  ;  which  is  more  than 
twice  the  value  of  the  whole  cotton  manufacture  of  the 
country,  in  1831.  Now  if  it  costs  $350,000,000  to  feed 
the  increased  population  of  9,000,000,  then  to  feed  the 
present  population  of  17,500,000  must  cost  near  700,- 
000,000  !  What  an  amazing  agricultural  product  for  so 
small  a  territory  !     And  yet  it  is  the  opinion  of  practical 


12  THE   IMPORTANCE    OF 

men  of  the  highest  respectabihty  in  England,  that  the  raw 
produce  of  the  Island  might  be  well-nigh  doubled,  with- 
out any  greater  proportional  expense  being  incurred  in  its 
production  ;  that  is  to  say,  35,000,000  people  might 
draw  their  subsistence  from  that  one  little  speck  in  the 
ocean  !  Now  ive  have  a  territory  more  than  fifteen  times 
as  large  as  the  island  of  Great  Britain  ;  and  what  should 
hinder  it,  when  it  comes  to  be  brought  under  no  higher 
cultivation  than  some  parts  of  England  and  Scotland, 
from  sustaining  a  population  of  five  or  six  hundred  mil- 
lions of  people  ?  This  would  give  to  Virginia  something 
like  thirty  millions  ;  to  Illinois  and  Missouri,  about  the 
same  number  each  ;  to  New^-York  near  twenty-five  mil- 
lions, and  so  on  in  proportion  to  the  other  States.  I  am 
quite  aware  that  this  estimate  will  be  regarded  as  ex- 
tremely visionary  and  incredible,  by  many  of  your  read- 
ers ;  but  not  more  so  than  it  would  have  been  thought  in 
the  middle  of  the  last  century,  that  England,  Scotland, 
and  Wales  could  ever  be  made  to  sustain  thirty- five,  or 
even  thirty  millions." 

A  city  may  flourish  by  foreign  commerce — by  becom- 
ing the  carrier  of  other  nations,  as  Venice  and  Genoa  have 
once  done  ; — till  foreign  aggression,  or  foreign  rivalship — 
contingencies  of  no  unfrequent  occurrence  in  the  history 
of  nations — shall  blast  its  prospects,  and  reduce  it,  like 
the  cities  we  have  named,  to  ostentatious  beggary,  or 
consign  it,  like  Tyre,  Persepolis,  Petra,  and  other  cities 
of  the  East,  to  ruin  and  oblivion. 

A  toivn  or  district  may  flourish  by  its  manufacturing 
industry,  as  many  have  done  in  ancient  and  modern  times, 
as  long  as  it  can  exchange  its  merchandise  for  the  means  of 
subsistence  and  of  wealth  ;  but  if  its  dependance  for  these 
contingencies  is  upon  foreign  lands,  its  prosperity  is  unsta- 
ble. The  interchange  may  be  interrupted  or  destroyed 
by  war,  by  the  want  of  a  demand  for  its  commodities,  or 
a  failure  in  a  supply  of  the  necessaries  of  life. 

A  country  can  only  continue  long  prosperous,  and  be 
truly  independent,  when  it  is  sustained  by  agricultural  intel- 
ligence, agricultural  industry,  and  agricultural  w^ealth. 
Though  its  commerce  maybe  swept  from  the  ocean — and 


AGRICULTURE   TO  A  NATION.  13 

its  manufactures  perish — yet,  if  its  soil  is  tilled,  and  well 
tilled,  by  an  independent  yeomanry,  it  can  still  be  made 
to  yield  all  the  absolute  necessaries  of  life  ; — it  can  sus- 
tain its  population  and  its  independence  ; — and  when  its 
misfortunes  abate,  it  can,  like  the  trunkless  roots  of  a 
recently  cut  down  tree,  firmly  braced  in,  and  deriving 
nourishment  from,  the  soil,  send  forth  a  new  trunk,  new 
branches,  new  foliage,  and  new  fruits  ; — it  can  rear  again 
the  edifice  of  its  manufacturer,  and  spread  again  the  sails 
of  its  commerce.* 

But  agriculture  is  beneficial  to  a  state,  in  proportion 
as  its  labors  are  encouraged,  enlightened,  and  honored — 
for  in  that  proportion  does  it  add  to  national  and  individ- 
ual wealth  and  happiness. 

^Agriculture  feeds  all.  Were  agriculture  to  be  neg- 
lected, population  would  diminish,  because  the  necessa- 
ries of  life  would  be  wanting.  Did  it  not  supply  more 
than  is  necessary  for  its  own  wants,  every  other  art 
would  not  only  be  at  a  stand,  but  every  science,  and 
every  kind  of  mental  improvement,  would  be  neglected. 
Manufactures  and  commerce  originally  owed  their  exist- 
ence to  agriculture.  Agriculture  furnishes,  in  a  great  meas- 
ure, raw  materials  and  subsistence  for  the  one,  and  com- 
modities for  barter  and  exchange  for  the  other.  In  pro- 
portion as  these  raw  materials  and  comniodities  are 
multiplied,  by  the  intelligence  and  industry  of  the  farmer, 
and  the  consequent  improvement  of  the  soil,  in  the  same 
proportion  are  manufactures  and  commerce  benefited — 

*  Those  who  labor  in  the  earth,  are  the  chosen  people  of  God,  if 
ever  He  had  a  chosen  people,  whose  breasts  He  has  made  a  peculiar 
deposit  for  substantial  and  genuine  virtue.  Corruption  of  morals  in 
the  mass  of  cultivators,  is  a  phenomenon  in  which  no  one,  nor  nation, 
has  found  an  example.  It  is  a  mark  set  on  those,  who,  looking  up  to 
heaven,  and  to  their  own  soil  and  industry,  depend  not  on  the  casual- 
ties and  caprice  of  customers.  Dependance  begets  subserviency  and 
degeneracy,  suffocates  the  germ  of  virtue,  and  prepares  fit  tools  for  the 
designs  of  ambition.  Thus  the  natural  consequence  and  progress  of 
the  arts,  has  sometimes,  perhaps,  been  retarded  by  accidental  circum- 
stances ;  but,  generally  speaking,  the  proportion  which  other  citizens 
bear  in  the  state  to  that  of  husbandmen,  is  the  proportion  of  its  un- 
sound to  its  healthy  parts,  and  is  a  good  enough  barometer,  whereby  to 
measure  its  degree  of  corruption. — Jefferson. 

2  XV. 


14  THE   IMPORTANCE   OF 

not  only  in  being  furnished  with  more  abundant  supplies, 
but  in  the  increased  demand  for  their  fabrics  and  merchan- 
dise. The  more  agriculture  produces,  the  more  she 
sells — the  more  she  buys  ;  and  the  business  and  comfort 
of  society  are  mainly  influenced  and  controlled  by  the 
results  of  her  labors. 

t^griculture^  directly  or  indirectly^  pays  the  burdens 
of  our  taxes  and  our  tolls, — which  support  the  govern- 
ment, and  sustain  our  internal  improvements ;  and  the 
more  abundant  her  means,  the  greater  will  be  her  contri- 
butions. The  farmer  who  manages  his  business  igno- 
rantly  and  slothfully,  and  who  produces  from  it  only  just 
enough  for  the  subsistence  of  his  family,  pays  no  tolls  on 
the  transit  of  his  produce,  and  but  a  small  tax  upon  the 
nominal  value  of  his  lands.  Instruct  his  mind,  and  awaken 
him  to  industry,  by  the  hope  of  distinction  and  reward, 
so  that  he  triples  the  products  of  his  labor,  the  value  of 
his  lands  is  increased  in  a  corresponding  ratio,  his  com- 
forts are  multiplied,  his  mind  disinthralled,  and  two  thirds 
of  his  products  go  to  augment  the  business  and  tolls  of 
our  canals  and  roads.  If  such  a  change  in  the  situation 
of  one  farm,  would  add  one  hundred  dollars  to  the  wealth, 
and  one  dollar  to  the  tolls  of  the  state,  what  an  astonish- 
ing aggregate  would  be  produced,  both  in  capital  and  in 
revenue,  by  a  similar  improvement  upon  250,000  farms, 
the  assumed  number  in  the  State  of  New  York.  The 
capital  would  be  augmented  25  millions,  and  the  revenue 
two  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  dollars  per  annum. 

Agriculture  is  the  principal  source  of  our  wealth.  It 
furnishes  more  productive  labor,  the  legitimate  source  of 
wealth,  than  all  the  other  employments  in  society  com- 
bined. The  more  it  is  enlightened  by  science,  the  more 
abundant  will  be  its  products  ;  the  more  elevated  its  char- 
acter, the  stronger  the  incitements  to  pursue  it.  What- 
ever, therefore,  tends  to  enlighten  the  agriculturist,  tends 
to  increase  the  wealth  of  the  state,  and  the  means  for  the 
successful  prosecution  of  the  other  arts,  and  the  sciences, 
now  indispensable  to  their  profitable  management. 

Agriculturists  are  the  guardians  of  our  freedom. 
They  are  the  fountains  of  political  power.     If  the  foun- 


AGRICULTURE   TO   A  NATION.  16 

tains  become  impure,  the  stream  will  be  defiled.  If  the 
agriculturist  is  slothful,  and  ignorant,  and  poor,  he  will  be 
spiritless  and  servile.  If  he  is  enlightened,  industrious, 
and  in  prosperous  circumstances,  he  will  be  independent 
in  mind,  jealous  of  his  rights,  and  watchful  for  the  public 
good.  His  welfare  is  identified  with  the  welfare  of  the 
state.  He  is  virtually  fixed  to  the  soil ;  and  has,  there- 
fore, a  paramount  interest,  as  well  as  a  giant  power,  to 
defend  it,  from  the  encroachment  of  foreign  or  domestic 
foes.  If  his  country  suffers,  he  must  suffer  ;  if  she  pros- 
pers, he  too  may  expect  to  prosper.  Hence,  whatever 
tends  to  improve  the  intellectual  condition  of  the  farmer, 
and  to  elevate  him  above  venal  temptation,  essentially 
contributes  to  the  good  order  of  society  at  large,  and  to 
the  perpetuity  of  our  country's  freedom. 

Agriculture  is  the  parent  of  physical  and  moral  health 
to  the  state — it  is  the  salt  which  preserves  from  moral  cor- 
ruption. Not  only  are  her  labors  useful  in  administering  to 
our  wants,  and  in  dispensing  the  blessing  of  abundance  to 
others,  but  she  is  constantly  exercising  a  salutary  influence 
upon  the  moral  and  physical  health  of  the  state,  and  in 
perpetuating  the  republican  habits  and  good  order  of 
society.  While  rural  labor  is  the  great  source  of  physi- 
cal health  and  constitutional  vigor  to  our  population,  it 
interposes  the  most  formidable  barrier  to  the  demoralizing 
influence  of  luxury  and  vice.  We  seldom  hear  of  civil 
commotions,  of  crimes,  or  of  hereditary  disease,  among 
those  who  are  steadily  engaged  in  the  business  of  agricul- 
ture. Men  who  are  satisfied  with  the  abundant  and  cer- 
tain resources  of  their  own  labor,  and  their  own  farms, 
are  not  willing  to  jeopard  these  enjoyments,  by  pro- 
moting popular  tumult,  or  tolerating  crime.  The  more 
we  promote  the  interest  of  the  agriculturist,  by  develop- 
ing the  powers  of  his  mind,  and  elevating  his  moral  views, 
the  more  we  shall  promote  the  virtue  and  happiness  of 
society. 

The  facts  which  are  here  submitted  must  afford  ample 
proof,  that  agriculture  is  all-important  to  us  as  a  nation  ; 
and  that  our  prosperity  in  manufactures,  in  commerce, 
and  in  the  other  pursuits  of  life,  will  depend,  in  a  great 


16  IMPROVEMENT   OF   OUR  AGRICULTURE 

measure,  upon  the  returns  which  the  soil  makes  to  agri- 
cultural labor.  It  therefore  becomes  the  interest  of 
every  class,  to  cherish,  to  encourage,  to  enlighten,  to 
honor,  and  to  reward  those  who  engage  in  agricultural 
pursuits.  Our  independence  was  won  by  our  yeomanry, 
and  it  can  only  be  preserved  by  them. 


CHAPTER  II. 

THE  IMPROVEMENT  OF  OUR  AGRICULTURE  PRACTICABLE  AND 
NECESSARY. 

To  render  agriculture  more  productive,  and  beneficial 
to  all,  it  is  necessary  that  its  principles  should  be  better 
understood,  and  that  we  should  profit  more  from  the  ex- 
perience of  each  other,  and  by  the  example  of  other  coun- 
tries which  excel  us  in  this  great  business.  It  is  true  of 
the  manufacturing  and  mechanic  arts,  that  our  citizens  do 
profit  greatly  by  the  improvements  which  have  been  made, 
and  are  continually  making,  in  these  arts,  whether  in 
Europe  or  in  America.  If  an  improvement,  tending  to 
economize  labor,  to  simplify  manipulation,  or  to  produce 
certainty  in  results,  is  this  year  made  in  any  part  of  Eu- 
rope or  xAmerica,  in  these  arts,  it  is  known, — it  is  adopted, 
and  it  profits  the  artisans  and  the  manufacturers  of  our 
country,  in  the  coming  year.  Thus  the  improvements  of 
the  civilized  world,  in  the  manufacturing  and  mechanic 
arts,  are  made  subservient  to  our  use  in  the  short  space 
of  a  twelvemonth.  Is  it  so  with  agriculture  ?  We  are 
sorry  to  say  it  is  not.  Mr.  Coke,  one  of  the  most  en- 
lightened agriculturists  of  this  or  any  other  age,  who  has 
been  the  means  of  converting  a  large  sandy,  and  compara- 
tively barren  district,  into  one  of  great  productiveness  and 
wealth,  has  said,  that  his  agricultural  improvements,  and 
they  have  been  manifestly  great,  have  hardly  extended 
around  him  more  than  at  the  rate  of  three  miles  a  year, — 
such  have  been  the  prejudices,  and  such  the  ignorance 
of  the  agricultural  population.     It  is  from  these  causes — 


PRACTICABLE  AND  NECESSARY.  ]? 

the  want  of  better  knowledge,  and  the  lack  of  means  of  dis- 
seminating it — that  our  agriculture  ranks  so  low  in  the 
public  estimation — that  every  young  aspirant  for  fame  and 
fortune,  turns  from  this  pure  source  of  independence  and 
happiness  with  derision,  and  seeks  for  higher  enjoyments 
— for  fame  and  fortune — in  pursuits  which,  alas  !  often 
disappoint  his  hopes,  and  which  add  little  or  nothing  to 
the  promotion  of  the  pubhc  good. 

Yet  agriculture  may  be  rendered  as  progressive  in  im- 
provement, as  profitable  and  as  honorable,  as  any  of  the 
other  arts  of  productive  labor — and  more  independent  than 
any  other  employment,  if  the  agriculturist  will  employ  the 
same  means  to  enlighten  his  mind,  and  improve  his  prac- 
tice, which  the  artisan  and  the  manufacturer,  and  others 
employ.  He  lacks  neither  the  means  nor  the  natural 
capacity  for  improvement  ;  and  there  is  no  business  sus- 
ceptible of  greater  enlargement,  in  the  elements  of  human 
happiness,  than  the  one  he  pursues.  We  possess  a  soil, 
prolific  in  the  riches  and  blessings  of  a  wise  and  beneficent 
Creator,  who  has  spread  around  us  all  the  elements  of 
happiness.  He  has  given  to  us  capacities  for  applying 
these  elements  for  our  own  good,  and  the  good  of  others. 
He  has  commanded  us  to  exercise  these  capacities,  in 
the  use  of  these  means, — and  He  has  promised  to  reward 
— and  He  does  bountifully  reward — all  who  prove  faith- 
ful to  his  command. 

Let  us  here  stop  and  inquire,  what  our  agriculture  is, 
and  what  it  may  and  should  be.  Generally  speaking,  our 
practice  is  bad.  Its  tendency  is  to  exhaust  the  soil  of  its 
natural  fertility — to  render  the  products  of  our  farms  less 
and  less  annually — until  they  become  too  poor  to  support 
our  families,  or  pay  us  for  our  labor, — until  hundreds  and 
thousands  are  obliged  either  to  sell  out,  for  a  nominal 
consideration,  and  to  resort  to  new  and  unexhausted  soils, 
to  retrieve  their  fortunes,  or  to  sink  their  patrimonial  es- 
tates, and  to  sink  themselves  and  their  families  to  indigence 
and  want.  To  illustrate  what  we  here  state,  in  regard  to 
the  defective  condition  of  our  husbandry,  and  to  show  the 
causes  which  have  operated  to  produce  it,  we  beg  to  in- 
troduce an  extract,  from  a  highly-distinguished  statesman 
2* 


18  IMPROVEMENT   OF   OUR  AGRICULTURE 

and  farmer,  the  Honorable  James  M.  Garnett,  of  Vir- 
ginia. In  a  letter  to  the  writer  of  this  essay,  in  reply  to 
some  queries  that  had  been  addressed  to  him,  he  remarks  : 
"  Your  first  question  is,  '  Have  not  successive  crops 
of  wheat,  of  corn,  of  tobacco,  greatly  deteriorated  some 
of  her  once  fertile  soils  ?'  [alluding  to  Virginia.]  And 
your  second  is  like  unto  it — '  Have  they  not  reduced  thou- 
sands and  tens  of  thousands,  of  her  good  acres,  to  com- 
parative sterihty — to  unproductive  commons  ?'  To  both 
I  reply — that  we  have,  alas  !  hundreds  of  thousands  of 
once  good  acres  long  ago  reduced  to  '  comparative  ste- 
rihty,' but  not  to  '  unproductive  commons  ;'  for  they  still 
produce  what  we  call  hengrass,  broom-straw,  and,  ever 
and  anon,  a  starveling  pine  or  cedar  bush — the  reproach- 
ful and  melancholy  mementoes  of  ancestral  improvidence. 
But  the  successive  crops  to  which  you  ascribe  this,  are 
far  from  being  the  only,  or  the  chief  causes  of  the  lamen- 
table fact.  From  the  first  settlement  of  the  country,  un- 
til within  a  few  years  past,  the  most  deadly  enemies  to 
good  husbandry,  in  Virginia,  have  been — the  utter  neg- 
lect of  it  as  a  science  ; — the  implicit  adoption,  by  each 
successive  generation,  of  the  practices  of  their 
FOREFATHERS  ; — the  almost  total  neglect  of  manures — 
except  for  gardens  ; — the  incessant  alternate  cropping 
and  grazing  our  lands  without  rest  ; — the  culture  of 
them  in  a  certain  rotation  of  icorkings  without  a  due  re- 
gard to  the  condition  of  the  soil,  as  to  wetness  or  dryness. 
But,  above  all,  to  the  proprietors  of  this  goodly  soil 
generally  using  it  more  as  the  means  of  gratifying  their 
appetites — their  love  of  show,  and  the  means  of  display- 
ing it,  than  as  sources  of  future  comfort,  respectability, 
and  happiness  to  their  children,  as  well  as  of  credit  and 
honor  to  their  native  State.  The  acme  of  ambition,  in 
the  olden  time,  seemed  to  be,  who  should  have  the  best 
cheer,  and  the  most  company  to  consume  it — Vvith  little 
or  no  regard  to  the  '  material'  of  which  it  was  composed  ; 
provided  these  '  Nate  consumera  fruges'  were  lovers  of, 
and  tolerable  contributors  to,  fun  and  frolic.  As  long  as 
the  plantation  held  out  in  furnishing  the  means  of  this 
ruinously-merry  career,  the  troublesome  study  and  prac- 


PRACTICABLE  AND  NECESSARY.  19 

tice  of  good  husbandry  were  postponed,  like  the  study 
and  practice  of  rehgion,  ^  to  a  more  convenient  season,'' 
This,  sir,  I  sincerely  believe,  is  a  true  and  just  explana- 
tion of  the  complicated  causes  which  have  contributed  to 
empoverish  a  vast  portion  of  our  lands,  and  much  to  my 
shame  and  sorrow  have  1  given  it.  But  I  have  the  con- 
solation to  feel  assured,  that  the  dawn  of  a  much  better 
state  of  things, — at  least  in  regard  to  husbandry, — is  now 
shining  in  almost  every  part  of  our  old  State.  I  fear  to 
inquire  how  much  is  owing  to  the  absolute  necessity  of 
reform — how  much  to  motives  every  way  laudable,  and 
shall  therefore  content  myself  with  the  fact.  There  is, 
however,  one  cause  of  the  happy  change  with  us,  in  regard 
to  the  efficacy  of  which  I  feel  so  perfectly  confident,  that 
I  cannot  omit  to  mention  it.  This  is — the  circulation 
among  us,  of  our  friend  Ruffin's  Farmers'  Register  and 
your  Cultivator,*  which  have  done  more  than  every  thing 
else  towards  it.  Both  are  read  by  great  numbers  of  our 
brethren,  and  have  greatly  contributed  to  awaken  them  to 
a  true  sense  of  the  vast  losses  they  have  sustained  by 
their  long  and  destructive  neglect  of  the  study  and  prac- 
tice of  agriculture." 

Let  not  the  Northerners  take  credit  to  themselves  from 
this  outline  of  old  Virginia  husbandry,  or  from  the  ingen- 
uous detail  of  the  causes  which  brought  it  to  so  low  a 
condition.  Though  not  exactly  the  like  causes  have  op- 
erated, the  same  deteriorating  system  of  husbandry  has  pre- 
vailed with  us,  though  perhaps  to  a  more  hmited  extent. 
Though  we  have  personally  attended  more  to  the  art — 
to  the  practice — yet  we  have  been  equally  deficient  in 
the  science  with  our  brethren  of  Virginia — equally  indif- 
ferent to  the  study  and  application  of  the  principles  upon 
which  good  husbandry  must  ever  be  based.  And  although 
we  may  have  begun  earlier  in  the  business  of  reform, 
whether  from  necessity  or  from  choice  we  will  not  say, 
we  are  still  too  defective  in  practice  to  boast  of  our  trivial 
acquirements.  Neither  let  him  boast  too  soon  who  is 
now  luxuriating  upon  the  fertile  soils  of  the  west,  the  ac- 

*  At  the  date  of  this  remark,  nearly  two  thousand  copies  of  the 
Cuhivator  were  circulated  in  Virginia. 


20  IMPROVEMENT   OF  OUR  AGRICULTURE. 

cumulated  treasure  of  ages,  and,  in  too  many  instances 
we  fear,  exhausting  that  fertility  which  of  right  belongs 
to  coming  ages.  Like  causes  will  produce  the  same  effects 
in  the  west,  that  we  now  deplore  in  the  east.  The  ocean 
would  in  time  become  exhausted,  were  it  not  for  the 
streams  which  are  constantly  flowing  into  its  bosom. 
The  soil  will  become  barren  by  constant  cropping,  unless 
we  give  back  to  it  some  of  the  fertilizing  matters,  which 
crops  are  continually  taking  from  it. 

The  truth  is,  we  have  regarded  the  soil  as  a  kind  moth- 
er, expecting  her  always  to  give,  give,  without  regarding 
her  ability  to  give.  We  have  expected  a  continuance 
of  her  bounties,  though  we  have  abused  her  kindness, 
and  disregarded  her  maternal  admonitions.  We  have 
managed  the  culture  of  the  soil  as  a  business  requiring 
mere  animal  power,  rather  than  as  one  in  which  the  intel- 
lect could  be  brought  largely  to  co-operate.  We  have 
not  gone  into  the  principles  of  science — of  cause  and 
effect — the  laws  of  Nature,  which  are  certain  and  immu- 
table, and  which  must  ever  have  a  controlling  influence 
over  the  soil  and  its  manifold  productions.  Like  prodi- 
gal sons  of  wealth,  we  have  gone  on  recklessly  wasting 
the  treasures  intrusted  to  our  care,  for  the  use  of  coming 
generations. 

But  there  is  a  redeeming  spirit  abroad.  The  lights  of 
science  are  beaming  upon  the  agricultural  world,  and  dis- 
sipating the  clouds  of  superstitious  ignorance  which  have 
so  long  shrouded  it  in  darkness.  The  causes  which  have 
for  some  time  been  actively  operating  to  improve  the 
condition  of  the  other  arts,  and  to  elevate  the  character 
of  those  who  conduct  them,  are  extending  their  influence 
to  agriculture.  A  new  and  better  system  of  husbandry  is 
coming  into  vogue,  which  has  already  been  productive  of 
great  good,  and  which  promises  many  new  comforts  and 
blessings  to  ourselves  and  children. 


PRINCIPLES  OF   THE   NEW   HUSBANDRY.  21 

CHAPTER  III. 

SOME  OF  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  THE  NEW  HUSBANDRY. 

The  new  system  of  husbandry  is  based  upon  the 
belief,  that  our  lands  will  not  wear  out,  or  become 
exhausted  of  their  fertility,  if  they  are  judiciously  man- 
aged ;  but,  on  the  contrary,  that  they  may  be  made  pro- 
gressively to  increase  in  product, — in  rewards  to  the 
husbandman,  and  in  benefits  to  society,  at  least  for  some 
time  to  come.  It  regards  the  soil  as  a  gift  of  the  benefi- 
cent Creator,  in  which  we  hold  but  a  life  estate,  and 
which,  like  our  free  institutions,  we  are  bound  to  trans- 
mit, UNIMPAIRED,  to  posterity. 

The  principles  of  the  new  husbandry  teach,  that  the  soil 
is  the  great  laboratory  for  converting  dead  into  living  mat- 
ters— the  useless  into  the  useful — manure  into  plants — 
plants  into  animal  food  :  That  plants,  like  animals,  are  or- 
ganized beings  ;  that  is,  they  five,  grow,  and  require  food 
for  their  sustenance — have  organs  to  take  in  food,  to  elab- 
orate it,  to  transmit  it  through  their  systems — organs  of 
sexual  intercourse,  of  reproduction,  &c.,  all  acting  together 
to  one  end  :  That  plants  cannot,  any  more  than  animals, 
live  upon  mere  air,  or  earthy  matters,  as  clay,  sand,  and 
lime,  but  that  they  require,  for  their  growth  and  perfection, 
animal  and  vegetable  matters  :  That  the  effect  of  growing 
and  carrying  off  the  ground  successive  crops,  is  to  exhaust 
the  vegetable  food  in  the  soil ;  and  that  continued  cropping 
will  ultimately  render  it  barren  and  unproductive,  unless 
we  return  to  it  some  equivalent  for  what  we  carry  off. 

The  principles  of  the  new  husbandry  also  teach,  that 
by  carefully  saving,  and  suitably  applying,  all  the  fertiliz- 
ing matters  afforded  by  the  farm  ;  by  an  alternation  or 
change  of  crops,  and  by  artificially  accelerating  or  retard- 
ing the  agency  of  heat,  moisture,  air,  and  light,  in  the 
process  of  vegetable  growth  ;  by  draining,  manuring, 
ploughing,  harrowing,  hoeing,  &c.,  we  may  preserve,  un- 


22  SOME    OF  THE   PRINCIPLES 

impaired,  the  natural  fertility  of  our  soils  ; — and  that,  with 
the  aid  of  improved  implements  of  husbandry,  and  a  good 
system  of  management,  we  may  also  greatly  increase  the 
profits  of  its  culture. 

These  principles  do  not  rest  upon  mere  theory.  They 
have  been  long  reduced  to  practice,  thoroughly  tested, 
and  their  correctness  amply  verified.  They  have,  in 
their  practical  application,  virtually  converted  Flanders 
into  a  garden,  and  rendered  it  so  fertile  in  human  food, 
that  each  acre  is  said  to  be  capable  of  supporting  its  man. 
The  system  which  these  principles  inculcate,  has  changed 
Scotland,  in  a  little  more  than  half  a  century,  from  com- 
parative sterility  and  unproductiveness,  into  one  of  the 
richest  and  most  profitable  agricultural  districts  in  Europe. 
It  has  increased  the  products  of  the  corn  harvest,  in  Great 
Britain,  in  sixty  years,  from  170  to  340  millions  of 
bushels.  It  has  doubled,  trebled,  and  quadrupled  the  ag- 
ricultural products  of  many  districts  in  our  own  country. 
It  has  augmented  the  value  of  farms,  in  some  of  these  dis- 
tricts, two,  three,  and  four  hundred  per  cent. — from  twen- 
ty and  thirty  dollars,  to  one  hundred  dollars  and  more  per 
acre.  It  has  made  every  acre  of  arable  land,  upon  which 
it  has  been  practised  ten  years,  and  lying  contiguous  to 
navigable  waters  or  a  good  market,  worth  at  least  one 
hundred  dollars,  for  agricultural  purposes. 

We  will  state  some  cases  of  comparison,  between  the 
products  of  the  old  and  new  system  of  farming,  to  illus- 
trate more  fully  the  advantages  of  the  latter. 

The  average  products  in  Flanders  are  stated  by  Rad- 
clifFe  as  follows  :  wheat  32  bushels,  rye  32J,  oats  52, 
potatoes  350,  per  acre.  Flanders  has  generally  a  flat 
surface,  with  a  light,  sandy  soil,  illy  adapted  to  wheat. 
It  is  naturally  very  similar  to  the  sandy  district  upon  the 
sea-coast  in  New  Jersey,  Maryland,  and  the  sandy  plains 
in  the  valley  of  the  Connecticut. 

In  the  fertile  districts  of  Scotland,  according  to  Sir 
John  Sinclair,  and  in  propitious  seasons,  ''  the  farmer 
may  confidently  expect  to  reap,  from  32  to  40  bushels 
of  wheat ;  from  42  to  50  bushels  of  barley  ;  from  52  to 
64  bushels  of  oats,  and  from  28  to  32  bushels  of  beans, 


OF  THE  NEW  HUSBANDRY.  23 

per  statute  acre.  As  to  green  crops,  30  tons  of  turnips, 
3  tons  of  clover,  and  from  8  to  10  of  potatoes,  per  statute 
acre,  may  confidently  be  relied  on.  In  favorable  sea- 
sons, the  crops  are  still  more  abundant."  Professor 
Lowe  gives  the  average  products  of  Scotch  husbandry 
somewhat  lower  than  the  above.  It  is  to  be  remem- 
bered, that,  sixty  years  ago,  the  average  was  probably 
not  one  quarter  as  much  as  it  is  now. 

Loudon  states  the  average  product  of  wheat  in  Eng- 
land, at  24,  28,  and  32  bushels  per  acre — mean  average 
26  bushels. 

The  preceding  references  are  made  to  old-settled 
countries — to  lands  which  have  been  under  culture  for 
many  centuries — to  lands  which  were  once  worn  out  by 
bad  husbandry,  but  which  have  been  renovated  and  ren- 
dered highly  productive  by  the  new  system. 

In  1790,  General  Washington,  in  a  letter  to  Arthur 
Young,  computed  the  average  crop  in  Pennsylvania, 
then  one  of  the  best  wheat-growing  States,  as  follows  : — 
wheat  15  bushels,  rye  20,  barley  25,  oats  30,  Indian 
corn  25,  potatoes  75.  Mr.  Strickland,  who  resided  in 
Maryland  about  forty  years  ago,  in  a  report  which  he 
made  to  the  British  Board  of  Agriculture,  gave  the  aver- 
age product  of  our  wheat  crop  at  12  bushels  the  acre, 
and  of  Dutchess  county,  then,  as  now,  our  best  cultiva- 
ted county,  at  16  bushels. 

Bordley,  about  the  period  we  are  referring  to,  stated 
the  average  yield  of  Indian  corn,  on  the  Eastern  Shore 
of  Maryland,  at  15  bushels  per  acre. 

These  quotations  are  sufficient  to  show,  that  in  our 
old-improved  districts,  the  crops  do  not  in  any  wise  com- 
pare with  those  grown  in  Flanders,  Scotland,  and  Eng- 
land,— and  this  difference  in  product  is  owing  entirely  to 
the  different  modes  of  managing  the  soil ;  for  wherever 
the  new  system  has  had  a  fair  trial  among  us,  it  has  been 
as  successful  as  it  has  been  in  Europe. 

We  will  illustrate  still  further  the  difference  between 
the  two  systems,  by  stating  the  products,  or  their  value, 
on  the  same  lands,  under  the  old  and  under  the  new  sys- 
tems of  husbandry. 


24  SOME   OF  THE   PRINCIPLES 

We  are  furnished,  in  Rees's  Cyclopedia,  with  many 
statements,  demonstrating  the  superiority  of  the  new  over 
the  old  system.  We  will  quote  some  of  them.  The 
first  comparison  is  made  on  a  farm  devoted  to  grazing, 
breedins;,  and  tillage,  of  314  acres,  in  Yorkshire.  Under 
the  old  mode  of  husbandry,  the  nett  profits  amounted  to 
£316  lOs.  ;  under  the  new  system  the  same  lands  gave  a 
nett  profit  of  £596,  making  a  difTerence  of  £278,  or 
nearly  one  hundred  per  cent.,  in  favor  of  the  new  system. 
The  second  is  that  of  a  tillage  farm  of  139  acres  in  Lin- 
colnshire. Under  the  old  system  the  profits  were  £130 
— under  the  new  £452  ;  difference  in  favor  of  the  latter 
£322,  or  250  per  cent.  The  third  statement  exhibits  the 
profits  of  an  acre  of  land,  being  the  medium  of  a  farm  of 
several  hundred  acres,  in  Yorkshire,  for  six  years.  Under 
the  old  system  the  profit  was  £1  95.  3c?. — under  the  new 
£17  6s.  9cl. — an  increase  of  more  than  1100  per  cent. 
The  medium  value  of  the  acreable  profit  in  England  is 
stated  at  from  27  to  36  dollars  per  annum. 

We  have  spoken  of  Mr.  Coke  as  one  of  the  best  far- 
mers of  the  age.  He  owns  a  large  estate  in  Norfolk, 
England,  a  portion  of  which  he  has  been  personally  im- 
proving for  half  a  century,  the  residue  being  occupied  by 
tenants.  The  rental  upon  his  estate  has  risen,  in  fifty 
years,  in  consequence  of  the  improvement  in  husbandry 
which  he  has  introduced,  from  £5,000,  to  £40,000. 

The  Hoffwyl  Agricultural  School  farm,  in  Switzerland, 
under  M.  Fellenburgh,  comprises  214  acres.  Lord 
Brougham,  often  visiting  this  farm,  and  making  inquiries 
of  the  Principal,  says  he  found  that  the  average  annual 
profit  of  the  pattern-farm  alone,  for  a  period  of  four  years, 
amounted  to  £886  sterling,  equal  to  about  $4,000,  ex- 
clusive of  the  cattle  concern,  which  was  kept  separate. 

The  last  case  we  will  cite  abroad,  is  that  of  the  farm 
belonging  to  the  Agricultural  School  of  Moegelin,  in 
Prussia,  under  Doctor  Von  Thaer.  The  school  was 
established  in  1809.  In  twelve  years  the  value  of  the 
farm  was  increased  from  2,000  to  12,000  rix  dollars,  by 
the  improved  mode  of  cultivating  it. 

The  cases  we  have  quoted,  we  admit  to  be  extraordi- 


OF   THE   NEW   HUSBANDRY.  25 

nary  ones  ;  yet  they  are  not  without  parallels  in  our  own 
country.  Agriculture  has  been  in  a  state  of  progressive 
improvement  in  the  valley  of  the  Hudson,  for  thirty  and 
forty  years.  The  lands  have  been  increasing  in  value  in 
consequence.  The  change  has  been  so  great  in  some 
districts,  that  farms  which  twenty  years  ago  were  sold  for 
20  to  25  dollars  an  acre,  have  recently  been  sold  for  100 
to  120  dollars  an  acre  ;  and  in  other  cases,  particularly 
on  Kinderhook  plains,  farms  which  were  bought  thirty 
years  ago  at  five  and  ten  dollars  an  acre,  have  lately 
commanded  sixty  and  seventy  dollars.  Few  farms  of 
tolerable  land  in  Dutchess,  Orange,  or  other  river  coun- 
ties, contiguous  to  the  Hudson,  can  now  be  bought  at 
less  than  from  100  to  150  dollars  an  acre,  in  consequence 
of  their  increased  productiveness,  caused  by  improved 
husbandry. 

Doctor  Black  has  demonstrated,  in  his  prize-essay, 
published  in  the  American  Farmer,  that  every  acre  of 
arable  land  in  New  Jersey,  which  now  sells  at  from  ten 
to  thirty  dollars  per  acre,  is  intrinsically  worth  five  hun- 
dred dollars  per  acre  ;  that  is,  if  put  under  a  judicious 
system  of  husbandry,  every  acre  may  be  made  to  yield 
a  nett  profit  of  thirty  dollars  per  annum,  equal  to  the  in- 
terest on  five  hundred  dollars,  at  6  per  cent.  And  Mr. 
Johnson,  of  Maryland,  in  a  speech  which  he  made  in 
Congress  in  1837,  cites  a  case  in  Delaware,  near  Dover, 
where  land  was  bought,  a  few  years  ago,  of  medium 
quality,  at  thirty  dollars  an  acre,  by  Messrs.  Sipple  and 
Pennewell,  which  has  paid  in  its  product  for  all  outlay 
in  improvement,  and  the  owners  are  now  receiving,  in 
the  farm-crops  vi'hich  it  gives,  an  annual  clear  income 
equal  to  the  interest  oi five  hundred  dollars  an  acre. 

We  will  ofter  but  one  other  illustration  in  support  of 
the  great  superiority  of  the  new  husbandry.  It  is  that  of 
John  Robinson,  Esq.,  an  intelligent,  industrious  Scotch 
farmer.  Fifteen  years  ago,  Mr.  Robinson  bought  a 
farm  on  the  banks  of  Seneca  Lake,  three  miles  from 
Geneva,  at  ten  dollars  an  acre.  The  farm  was  consid- 
ered worn  out.  Mr.  Robinson,  with  the  aid  of  sheep, 
lime,  manure,  and  good  husbandry,  has  made  it  produce, 
3  XV. 


26  AGRICULTURE   CONSIDERED 

over  and  above  the  expense  of  culture,  and  the  support 
of  his  family,  an  annual  income  equal  to  the  interest  of 
one  hundred  and  fifty  dollars  an  acre, — and  the  farm  is 
still  in  a  state  of  progressive  improvement.  The  income 
from  400  acres  is  now  $4000.  Mr.  Robinson  has  refused 
$100  per  acre  for  the  whole. 

We  might  multiply  instances  of  worn-out  lands  being 
brought  into  a  highly  productive  and  profitable  state,  by 
the  new  husbandry,  were  it  necessary  ;  but  almost  every 
old-settled  district  furnishes  examples  in  point.  Enough 
has  been  shown,  or  may  be  seen,  to  justify  us  in  saying, 
that,  under  the  new  system  of  husbandry,  every  acre  of 
arable  land,  if  any  where  contiguous  to  navigable  waters 
or  a  good  market,  may  in  a  few  years  be  made  to  yield 
a  nett  annual  profit,  equal  to  the  interest  of  two  hundred 
dollars.  And  we  may  add,  that  with  such  an  income, 
and  the  industry  and  economy  which  belong  to  republi- 
can habits,  there  are  few  employments  in  life  better  cal- 
culated than  agriculture  to  render  a  man  independent 
in  circumstances  and  in  mind,  and  rich  in  all  the  elements 
of  substantial  happiness. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

AGRICULTURE   CONSIDERED   AS  AN   EMPLOYMENT. 

Every  provident  parent  is  anxious  to  see  his  children 
settled  in  some  business  of  Hfe,  that  promises  to  confer 
wealth  and  respectability  ;  and  every  young  man,  who 
aims  to  arrive  at  future  and  honorable  distinction,  is  anx- 
ious to  select  that  employment  which  is  most  likely  to 
realize  his  wishes.  It  is  with  a  view  to  enable  both  pa- 
rent and  son  to  act  wisely  in  this  matter,  that  we  pro- 
pose to  point  out  some  of  the  advantages  which  agricul- 
ture holds  out  to  those  who  embark  in  its  pursuits. 

We  propose  to  consider  agricultural  employment  under 
the  following  heads  : — 

§  1.   As  a  means  of  obtaining  wealth  ; 


AS  AN  EMPLOYMENT.  27 

§  2.  As  promotive  of  health,  and  the  useful  develope- 
ment  of  the  mind  ; 

§  3.  As  a  means  of  individual  happiness,  the  great 
pursuit  of  life  ; 

§  4.  As  a  means  of  enabling  us  to  fulfil  the  high  ob- 
jects of  our  being  ; — of  performing  the  duties  which  we 
owe  to  our  famihes,  our  country,  and  our  God. 

§   1.  As  a  Means  of  obtaining  Wealthy 

Adequate  to  our  wants,  and  to  all  the  beneficial  pur- 
poses of  life,  agriculture  certainly  holds  a  pre-eminent 
rank.  With  that  industry  and  prudence,  which  Provi- 
dence seems  to  have  made  essential  to  human  happiness, 
and  that  knowledge  which  we  all  have  the  means  of  ac- 
quiring, its  gains  are  certain,  substantial,  and  sufficient — 
sufficient  for  ourselves,  for  the  good  of  our  children,  and 
the  healthful  tone  of  society.  It  does  not,  we  admit,  af- 
ford that  prospect  of  rapid  gain,  which  some  other  em- 
ployments hold  out  to  cupidity,  and  which  too  often  dis- 
tract and  bewilder  the  mind,  and  unsettle  for  life  the 
steady  business  habits  of  early  manhood  ;  yet  neither 
does  it,  on  the  other  hand,  involve  the  risks,  to  fortune 
and  to  morals — to  health  and  to  happiness — with  which 
the  schemers  and  speculators  of  the  day,  w^ho  would  live 
by  the  labor  of  others,  seem  ever  to  be  environed.  Great 
wealth  begets  great  care  and  anxiety,  and  is  too  apt  to 
engender  habits  unfriendly  alike  to  the  possessor  and  to 
society.  Wealth  that  comes  without  labor,  is  often  wast- 
ed without  thought ;  but  that  which  is  acquired  by  toil 
and  industry,  is  preserved  with  care,  and  expended  with 
judgement.  The  farmer,  therefore,  who  secures  an  an- 
nual and  increasing  income  by  his  industry,  though  it  be 
^mall  in  the  outset,  is  much  more  likely  to  become  ulti- 
mately rich,  not  only  in  dollars  and  cents,  but  in  all  the 
substantial  elements  of  happiness,  than  the  man  of  almost 
any  other  profession  in  life. 

We  have  shown  that  farm  lands  have  been  made  to 
produce  an  annual  income  of  thirty  dollars  an  acre  ;  and 
have  said,  that  by  good  husbandry  they  may  certainly  be 
made  to  produce  a  nett  income  of  fourteen  dollars  an 


28  AGRICULTURE   CONSIDERED 

acre.  Now,  if  a  farmer,  upon  a  hundred  acres  of  land, 
can  save  fourteen  hundred  dollars  a  year,  to  buy  super- 
fluities for  his  family,  educate  his  children,  and  to  add  to 
his  capital,  he  must,  at  the  end  of  twenty  years,  be  either 
a  rich  man  or  an  improvident  one  ;  and  if  improvident, 
he  will  probably  remain  poor,  be  his  employment  what  it 
may.  But  suppose  the  nett  income  of  a  farm  should  be 
but  half,  or  a  quarter  of  the  sum  we  have  assumed — that 
is,  $7,  or  $  3,50,  an  acre  ; — even  this  income,  prudently 
managed,  will  in  a  few  years  place  the  possessor  in  inde- 
pendent circumstances. 

§  2.   *35  promotive  of  Health  and  the  Developement  of 
the  Mind. 

The  grand  requisites  to  health,  or  rather  for  the  pre- 
vention of  diseases,  are  declared  by  Dr.  Johnson,  one  of 
the  highest  medical  authorities  of  the  age,  to  be — exercise 
in  the  open  air — temperance  in  our  living — moderation  in 
our  pleasures  and  enjoyments — restraint  on  our  passions — 
limitation  to  our  desires,  and  limitation  to  our  ambition.* 

What  employment  is  there  in  life,  so  highly  favorable 
to  all  the  benign  influences  of  exercise — so  conducive  to 
repose  and  tranquillity  of  mind — and  which  has  so  few 
temptations  to  intemperate  enjoyments — as  that  of  agri- 
culture. And  the  only  ambition  which  is  likely  to  ob- 
trude upon  the  farmer,  and  this  is  in  no  wise,  we  believe, 
prejudicial  to  the  health  either  of  his  body  or  his  mind — 
is  the  ambition  of  increasing  the  prolific  properties  of  the 
soil,  whereby  he  may  benefit  himself  and  society.  Polit- 
ical ambition,  which,  like  a  cancer,  is  apt  to  prey  upon 
and  corrupt  the  mortal  upon  whom  it  fixes  its  fangs,  abides 
not  upon  the  farm  ;  at  least  it  should  not  abide  there — for 
that  farmer  must  be  either  weak  or  unfortunate  who  is  wil- 
ling to  give  up  the  certain  and  tranquil  pleasures  of  a  rural 
home,  for  the  vexing,  precarious,  and  corrupting  cares 
and  responsibilities  of  political  eminence,  otherwise  than 
as  duty  may  require  it  at  his  hands.  "  Horticulture  and 
agriculture  are  better  fitted  for  the  promotion  of  health 

*  Economy  of  Health. 


AS   AN  EMPLOYMENT.  29 

and  of  sound  morals,"  says  an  eminent  medical  author,* 
"  than  any  other  human  occupation."  The  business  of 
agriculture  is  one  of  exercise  in  its  most  approved  forms. 
It  brings  into  healthful  action  the  entire  muscular  system  ; 
and  when  exercised  with  prudence,  as  all  employments 
should  be,  it  insures  appetite,  digestion,  sleep,  a  sound 
constitution,  and  a  contented  mind.  "  The  declaration 
is  as  trite  as  it  is  true,  that  exercise  promotes  virtue,  and 
subdues  the  storms  of  passions."! 

Although  the  garden  and  the  farm  may  be  made  to  fur- 
nish a  great  many  delicacies  and  luxuries  for  the  table, 
yet  these  delicacies  and  luxuries  are  such  as  conduce  alike 
to  health  and  to  rational  pleasure.  It  is  a  remark  of  St. 
Pierre,  that  every  country  and  every  clime  furnishes, 
within  itself,  the  food  which  is  best  fitted  for  the  wants  of 
the  animals  which  dwell  in  it.  The  same  remark,  with  a 
trifling  modification,  will  apply  to  the  farm.  The  prod- 
ucts of  the  farm  and  garden  do  constitute  the  best  food 
for  the  farmer  ;  and  there  is  no  class  who  can  indulge  in 
a  greater  variety  of  native  products,  or  enjoy  them  in  a 
higher  state  of  freshness  and  perfection,  than  those  who 
grow  them.  And  upon  the  farm,  and  among  an  intelli- 
gent rural  population,  the  pleasures  of  social  intercourse 
are  not  curtailed  by  the  cold  formalities,  nor  taxed  by  the 
extravagant  folly,  of  the  town  and  city.  The  agricultur- 
ist relies  upon  his  own  resources — upon  his  industry  and 
the  blessing  of  Providence,  for  the  enjoyments  of  life. 
His  farm  and  his  family  are  the  special  objects  of  his 
care,  and  his  ambition  is  to  obtain  good  crops,  a  good 
name  and  reputation  in  society,  and  to  deserve  them,  by 
a  liberal  and  kind  deportment  to  all  around  him.  He  is 
exempt  from  a  crowd  of  evils — of  rivalships  and  jealous- 
ies— of  corroding  cares  and  feverish  anxieties — which  not 
unfrequently  hang  around  other  professions,  mar  the  pleas- 
ures of  hfe,  and  undermine  health.  He  should  hate  no 
one  ;  for  he  should  dread  no  rivals.  If  his  neighbor's 
field  is  more  productive  than  his  own,  he  borrows  a  use- 
ful lesson.     If  his  own  field  is  the  most  productive,  it 

*  Dr.  Caldwell,  Prof.  Med.  Dep.  Transylvania  College,  Ky. 
t  Dr.  Harris,  Philadelphia,  on  Physical  Culture. 

3* 


30  AGRICULTURE  CONSIDERED 

affords  him  pleasure  to  benefit  his  neighbor  by  his  exam- 
ple. He  learns  to  identify  his  own,  with  the  prosperity 
of  his  neighborhood  and  of  his  country. 

"  Exercise  is  the  universal  law  of  improvement  for  the 
faculties  of  the  mind,  as  well  as  of  the  powers  of  the 
body."*  "  The  profession  of  agriculture  is  more  favor- 
able to  the  entire  developement  of  the  human  faculties  ;  to 
the  unfolding  and  perfecting  of  this  physical,  this  intellec- 
tual, this  moral  and  immortal  being,  which  God  has  given 
us,  than  any  other  employment.  It  imparts  vigor  to  the 
body  and  to  the  mind,  leaving  the  soul  free  from  feverish 
excitements,  to  imbltter,  as  it  were  with  its  growth,  the 
lessons  which  Nature  teaches  ;  in  fine,  it  is  capable  of 
ministering,  most  successfully  of  all  arts,  and  of  all  occu- 
pations, to  wealth,  to  intelligence,  and  to  virtue."! 

And  what  an  expansive  field  is  ever  before  the  eye  of 
the  agriculturist,  for  study,  for  reflection,  for  usefulness, 
for  the  enjoyment  of  rational  happiness  !  The  book  of 
Nature,  replete  with  the  teachings  of  Divine  Wisdom, 
always  lies  open  before  him  ! 

The  elements  are  subservient  to  his  use  ;  the  vegeta- 
ble and  animal  kingdoms  are  subject  to  his  control  !  And 
the  natural  laws  which  govern  them  all,  and  which  exert 
a  controlling  influence  upon  his  prosperity  and  happiness, 
are  constantly  developing  to  his  mind  new  harmonies,  new 
beauties,  perfect  order,  and  profound  wisdom,  in  the  works 
of  Nature  which  surround  him.  Nor  need  he,  in  these 
studies  of  usefulness,  be  restricted  to  his  own  personal  ob- 
servation. He  may  call  to  his  aid,  both  in  the  prosecution 
of  his  business,  and  the  improvement  of  his  intellectual  fac- 
ulties, the  counsels  of  eminent  men  of  every  age  and  every 
country,  who  have  left  for  our  use  the  record  of  their 
experience  and  their  wisdom.  And  we  say  it  without 
qualification,  that  there  are  few  professions  in  the  communi- 
ty, which  give  more  leisure  for  general  reading,  or  whose 
employments  embrace  a  greater  scope  of  useful  reading, 
than  the  business  of  agriculture.  The  artisan  is  generally 
obliged  to  employ  his  winter  evenings  in  labor  ;  and  those 

*  Wild's  Report  on  Manual  Labor  in  Literary  Institutions. 
t  Canadian  Quarterly  Agricultural  and  Industrial  Magazine. 


AS  AN   EMPLOYMENT.  31 

engaged  in  the  liberal  professions,  and  in  mercantile  busi- 
ness, are  not  only  accustomed  to  do  the  like,  but  their 
study  is  in  a  measure  restricted  to  their  particular  calling. 
The  agriculturist,  on  the  contrary,  may  devote  his  even- 
ings, or  most  of  them,  to  study — to  the  improvement  of 
his  mind — to  the  acquisition  of  useful  knowledge.  He 
may  devote  three  hours  out  of  the  twenty-four  to  study, 
without  infringing  upon  his  necessary  business,  or  fatiguing 
his  mind,  or  impairing  his  health.  This  is  allowing  eight 
hours  for  sleep,  ten  for  labor,  and  three  for  contingencies. 
What  profession  is  there,  wdiich,  if  well  conducted,  gives 
a  larger  portion  of  time  to  the  acquisition  of  general 
knowledge  ?  And  what  a  scope  of  usefulness  may  be 
embraced  by  these  studies  !  The  properties  of  the  soils 
which  grow  his  bread  and  meat — their  adaptation  to  par- 
ticular crops — the  cause  of  their  deterioration — the  modes 
of  renovating  or  increasing  their  fertility — by  farm  ma- 
nures, by  lime,  gypsum,  marl,  and  by  admixture  of  earths  ; 
by  draining,  irrigation,  and  alternating  crops: — the  animals 
which  are  consigned  to  his  care — their  form,  internal 
structure,  appropriate  management ;  the  nature,  cause, 
and  cure  of  their  diseases  ;  the  various  foods  most  profit- 
ably raised  for  the  nourishment  of  the  different  kinds  ; 
and  the  best  modes  of  preparing  and  feeding  it  : — the 
crops  which  he  cultivates — their  relative  value,  their  hab- 
its, proper  succession,  exhausting  influence  upon  the  soil, 
and  the  best  modes  of  their  management  : — the  agency  of 
air,  heat,  light,  and  moisture  in  preparing  vegetable  food, 
in  the  processes  of  vegetable  nutrition  and  developement, 
and  the  means  of  accelerating  or  retarding  their  agency  ; 
all  these  are  matters  which  come  specially  within  the 
province  of  the  agriculturist.  The  more  knowledge  he 
has  in  these  matters,  the  more  likely  he  is  to  succeed. 
His  unaided  observation  and  experience  may  do  much  ; 
yet  if  to  his  own,  he  can  add  the  observations  and  expe- 
rience of  hundreds  of  others,  in  his  particular  business, 
as  observing  and  intelligent  as  himself,  he  must  certainly 
be  able  to  profit  greatly  by  it,  and  to  advance  in  improve- 
ment. 

Labor  is  in  no  wise  incompatible  with  study  ;  but,  on 


32  AGRICULTURE  CONSIDERED 

the  contrary,  it  is  necessary,  or  exercise  is  necessary,  to 
the  developement  of  the  facuUies  of  the  mind  •,  and  where 
study  and  labor  are  directed  to  the  same  object,  as  they 
may  be  in  agricuhure,  they  tend  particularly  to  stimulate, 
and  to  give  pleasure  and  profit  to  each  other.  Many  of 
the  most  eminent  and  useful  men  in  the  improvement  of 
society  have  been  such  as  have  prosecuted  their  studies 
while  daily  laboring  in  their  professional  business.  Among 
those,  of  our  country,  who  have  been  distinguished  for 
public  usefulness,  we  may  name  Franklin,  Rittenhouse, 
Fulton,  Sherman,  &c.,  who  were  all  hard-working  men, 
and  who  greatly  improved  their  minds,  while  they  daily 
labored  with  their  hands. 

§  3.   Ma  Means  of  Individual  Happiness. 

One  of  our  good  and  great  men  has  said—"  If  happi- 
ness is  to  be  found  upon  earth,  it  must  certainly  be  sought 
in  the  indulgence  of  those  benign  emotions  which  spring 
from  rural  cares  and  rural  labors."  "  As  Cicero,"  he 
continues,  "  sums  up  all  human  knowledge  m  the  charac- 
ter of  a  perfect  orator,  so  we  might,  with  much  more 
propriety,  claim  every  virtue,  and  embrace  every  science, 
where  we  draw  that  of  an  accomplished  farmer.  He  is 
the  legislator  of  an  extensive  family;  and  not  only  man, 
but  the  brute  creation  are  subject  to  his  laws.  He  is  the 
magistrate,  who  expounds  and  carries  these  laws  into 
operation.  He  is  the  physician,  who  heals  the  wounds, 
and  cures  the  diseases,  of  his  various  patients.  He  is 
the  divine,  who  studies  and  enforces  the  precepts  of 
reason.  And  he  is  the  grand  almoner  of  the  Creator, 
who  is  continually  dispensing  his  bounties  not  only  to  his 
fellow-mortals,  but  to  the  fowls  of  the  air,  and  to  the 
beasts  of  the  field."*  .         i         u-  u 

Though  there  are  many  ways  and  devices  by  which 
men  endeavor  to  obtain  weahh  and  happiness,  there  is 
perhaps  no  employment  in  which  these  are  obtained  with 
so  much  certainty,— few  which  apparently  better  fulfil  the 

*  Chancellor  Livingston's  Address  before  the  Society  of  Agriculture 
and  the  Arts. 


AS  AN  EMPLOYMENT.  33 

beneficent  designs  of  the  Creator — than  that  assigned  to 
our  first  parents — the  cultivation  of  the  soil.  It  has,  to 
be  sure,  Hke  all  other  avocations,  its  cares  and  its  toils — 
its  thorns  ; — yet  its  cares  and  its  toils  often  turn  out  to  be 
substantial  blessings  ;  and,  unlike  most  other  avocations, 
it  has  more  of  the  roses  than  the  thorns  of  life.  "  Agricul- 
ture," wrote  Socrates,  ''is  an  employment  most  worthy 
the  application  of  man,  the  most  ancient,  and  the  most 
suitable  to  his  nature  ;  it  is  the  common  nurse  of  all  per- 
sons, in  every  age  and  condition  of  life  ;  it  is  the  source 
of  health,  strength,  plenty,  and  riches,  and  of  a  thousand 
sober  dehghts  and  honest  pleasures.  It  is  the  mistress 
and  school  of  sobriety,  temperance,  justice,  religion,  and, 
in  short,  of  all  the  virtues,  civil  and  military." 

§  4.   Jls  a  Means  of  enabling  us  to  fulfil  the   Temporal 
Duties  of  Life. 

These  duties  consist,  first,  in  providing  honestly  for 
ourselves  and  families  ;  secondly,  in  helping  our  neigh- 
bor ;  and,  thirdly,  in  prom^oting  the  good  of  society  at 
large.  It  is  the  due  performance  of  these  duties  that 
gives  worth  and  dignity  to  the  human  character, — that 
makes  the  good  man, — that  renders  him  useful  and  re- 
spected,— and  that  constitutes  the  temporal  elements  of 
human  happiness.  Every  virtue  has  its  reward,  and  every 
vice  a  punishment,  in  one  form  or  another,  even  here, 
to  say  nothing  of  a  hereafter.  The  indolent  man,  who 
provides  not  for  himself  and  his  own,  but  lives  upon  the 
labor  of  others,  becomes  a  dependant  upon  the  sympa- 
thies or  charities  of  the  world,  and  is  a  stranger  to  the 
high  and  manly  feelings  that  flow  from  conscious  inde- 
pendence. He  who  cares  not  for  the  welfare  of  his 
neighbor,  or  seeks  not  to  promote  it,  is  a  stranger  to  the 
best  feelings  of  humanity — he  is  a  misanthrope  in  practice, 
if  not  in  heart.  And  he  who  feels  not  his  obligations  to 
society,  for  the  protection  and  security  it  affords  him,  in 
the  enjoyment  of  hfe,  liberty,  and  property — and  who 
does  not  use  a  portion  of  his  means  and  his  influence, 
from  a  high  sense  of  duty,  to  promote  the  common  weal 
— to  maintain  order,  law,  and  a  tone  of  moral  health  in 


34        AGRICULTURE  CONSIDERED,  ETC. 

society, — is  not  a  good  citizen,  whatever  may  be  his  pre- 
tensions to  talents  or  to  wealth. 

Now,  agricultural  employment,  in  the  first  place,  enables 
us  to  provide  by  our  industry  for  all  the  first  wants,  and 
for  most  of  the  substantial  comforts  of  life  ; — to  superin- 
tend and  assist  in  the  education  of  our  children  ;  to  form 
their  habits,  restrain  their  bad  passions  and  propensities, 
and  to  start  them  in  life  in  a  course  of  industry  and  use- 
fulness. 

In  the  second  place,  the  condition  of  the  agriculturist 
enables  him  to  help  his  neighbor,  and  promote  his  wel- 
fare, in  a  variety  of  ways — by  his  counsel,  by  pecuniary 
aid,  and  particularly  by  his  example.  In  the  city,  in- 
dividual example  is  limited  in  its  influence,  or  lost  in  the 
crowd,  except  in  very  eminent  individuals  ;  but  in  the 
country,  it  becomes  conspicuous  to  all  ;  and  the  good 
farmer  is  sure  of  benefiting  those  around  him,  not  only 
by  the  improvements  which  he  introduces  upon  his  farm, 
but  by  his  exemplary  deportment  in  life. 

In  the  third  place,  no  one  is  better  fitted  than  the 
farmer,  to  appreciate  his  high  obligations  to  society, — no 
one  has  a  stronger  interest  in  performing  them.  He  en- 
joys the  frurts  of  his  labor  in  peace  and  quietude,  because 
the  laws  protect  him.  He  participates  in  all  public  im- 
provements, as  they  tend  to  enhance  the  value  of  his 
farm  and  his  products.  He  rejoices  in  the  prosperity  of 
other  professions,  as  they  are  his  customers.  He  sees 
constantly  around  him  the  works  of  Creative  Wisdom  ;  he 
sees  that  they  are  all  governed  by  immutable  laws — and 
that  he  is  himself  subject  to  these  laws  ;  and  his  employ- 
ments, his  reflections,  and  a  conscious  sense  of  duty, 
impel  in  him  a  desire  to  aid  in  carrying  out  the  great  and 
beneficent  designs  of  the  Lawgiver. 

Having  considered  agriculture  in  its  influence  upon  the 
prosperity  of  nations, — having  demonstrated  its  suscep- 
tibility of  great  improvements,  and  noticed  some  of  the 
principles  and  profits  of  the  new  husbandry ;  and  having 
endeavored  to  satisfy  our  readers,  that  there  is  no  employ- 
ment so  conducive  to  health  and  happiness,  by  the  labor 
and  study  which  it  involves,  as  this  parent  art, — we  will 


EARTHS  AND   SOILS.  35 

next  proceed  to  speak  of  some  of  its  principles  and  prac- 
tices.* 


CHAPTER  V. 


EARTHS    AND    SOILS. 


Earths  are  the  productions  of  the  rocks  which  are 
exposed  on  the  surface  of  the  globe,  and  are  as  various 
as  the  rocks  which  produce  them.  They  consist  mainly 
of  sand,  clay,  and  lime,  with,  occasionally,  an  admixture 
of  magnesia,  iron,  &c.  They  are  considered  more  or 
less  fitted  to  become  the  basis  of  a  good  soil,  in  propor- 
tion to  the  quantity  of  organic  remains  which  the  rocks 
contain  from  which  they  originate — primitive  rocks  afford- 
ing the  poorest,  and  secondary  rocks  the  best  basis. 
Hence  the  utility  of  geological  surveys.  But  the  earths 
alone,  however  blended,  do  not  possess  fertility. 

Soils  consist  of  earths,  with  more  or  less  of  the  de- 
composed organic  matters  afforded  by  dead  plants  and 
animals, — which  latter  constitute  the  true  food  of  plants, 
as  much  as  hay,  grain,  roots,  and  herbage  constitute  the 
true  food  of  farm-stock. 

Earths  are  found  in  the  ashes  of  plants  ;  and  silex  is 
apparent  in  the  epidermis  of  Indian  corn,  wheat,  oats, 
and  the  hollow  grasses  ;  and,  although  the  earths  seem 

*  "  The  man  who  makes  agriculture  not  merely  productive,  but 
honorable  ;  who  surrounds  his  farm  with  the  images  of  the  most  at- 
tractive happiness  ;  who  dwells  in  a  neat  abode,  such  as  a  republican 
might  build,  and  republican  simplicity  ought  to  desire  ;  who,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  song  of  the  robin,  can  make  the  music  of  contentment  flow 
around  his  calm  abode  ;  can  unite  it  with  the  intelligence  of  a  citizen 
who  knows  his  rights,  and  is  determined  to  defend  them  ;  who  shows 
that  this  bxisiness  is  favorable  to  mental  culture,  and  as  fair  a  road  as 
any  to  political  eminence  ; — such  a  n)an  does  more  to  encourage  the 
profession,  than  all  other  causes  combined.  He  touches  the  springs 
of  action  in  their  centre,  and  blesses  his  country  and  mankind.  He 
plants  the  laurel  beside  the  plough,  and  allures  thousands  to  come, 
and,  after  having  toiled  within  its  fragrance,  to  sit  beneath  its  shade." 
— Whitington's  Address  before  the  Essex  Agricultural  Society. 


36  EARTHS  AND   SOILS. 

essential  in  both  the  animal  and  vegetable  structure,  they 
are  not  considered  as  forming  any  portion  of  the  proper 
food  of  either.  Lime  enters  adventitiously  into  the  food 
of  animals,  and  is  transformed  into  bone.  Silex  enters 
in  the  same  way  into  the  food  of  vegetables,  and  forms  a 
part  of  the  epidermis  of  plants,  like  those  we  have  named, 
rendering  them  hard  and  rigid  ;  and  seems  designed  to 
strengthen  and  defend  them  from  the  attacks  of  insects 
and  parasitical  plants.  The  earthy  parts  of  the  soil  are 
useful  in  retaining  water,  an  essential  agent  in  preparing 
the  food  of  vegetables,  and  the  medium  of  conveying  the 
food  thus  prepared  into  and  through  the  vegetable  struc- 
ture ;  and  they  are  also  useful  in  producing  the  proper 
distribution  of  animal  and  vegetable  matter.  It  is  the 
finely-divided  matter,  principally  clay  and  lime,  which 
gives  tenacity  and  coherence  to  soils,  a  strong  affinity  for 
moisture  and  manures,  and  which  most  tends  to  fertility, 
when  it  does  not  exist  in  excess. 

"  A  certain  degree  of  friabihty,  or  looseness  of  tex- 
ture, is  also  required  in  soils,  in  order  that  the  operations 
of  culture  may  be  easily  conducted  ;  that  moisture  may- 
have  free  access  to  the  fibres  of  the  roots  ;  that  heat 
may  be  readily  conveyed  to  them,  and  that  evaporation 
may  proceed  without  obstruction.  Both  water  and  air 
must  circulate  in  a  soil,  to  render  it  productive.  Hence 
the  presence  of  sand  is  necessary.  As  alumina  possesses 
all  the  properties  of  adhesiveness  in  an  eminent  degree, 
and  silex  those  of  friability,  it  is  obvious  that  a  mixture 
of  these  two  earths,  in  suitable  proportions,  would  furnish 
every  thing  wanted  to  form  the  most  perfect  soil,  as  to 
water  and  the  operations  of  culture.  In  a  soil  so  com- 
pounded, water  will  be  presented  to  the  roots  by  capillary 
attraction.  It  will  be  suspended  in  it,  in  the  same  man- 
ner that  it  is  suspended  in  a  sponge,  not  in  a  state  of 
aggregation,  but  minute  division,  so  that  every  part  may 
be  said  to  be  moist,  but  not  wet." — Grisenthwaite. 

Another  property  to  be  regarded  as  of  value  in  a  soil, 
is  its  capacity  to  absorb  moisture  from  the  atmosphere, 
in  which  vapors  more  or  less  always  abound.  The  soils 
which  possess  this  property  in  the   highest  degree,  are 


EARTHS  AND   SOILS.  37 

those  which  contain  sand,  finely-divided  clay  and  lime,  in 
due  proportions,  and  animal  and  vegetable  matters.  If 
such  soils  are  rendered  permeable  to  the  atmosphere, 
which  is  always  charged  with  the  gaseous  food  of  vegeta- 
bles, by  good  tillage,  and  by  the  surface  being  kept  clean 
and  loose,  they  are  seldom  affected  by  drought.  Carbo- 
nate of  lime,  and  animal  and  vegetable  matters,  impart 
to  the  soil  this  property,  without  increasing  its  tenacity. 
A  soil  containing  11  parts  of  carbonate  of  lime,  and  9 
parts  of  vegetable  matter,  in  1000,  when  dried  to  2120, 
gained  in  an  hour,  by  exposure  to  air,  saturated  with 
moisture,  at  a  temperature  of  62°,  18  grains  ;  1000  parts 
of  fine  sandy  soil  gained,  under  like  circumstances,  11 
grains  ;  and  1000  parts  of  coarse  sand  only  8  grains.* 
Thus  it  would  seem,  that  the  power  of  a  soil  to  absorb 
moisture  from  the  air,  and  with  air  other  elements  of  fer- 
tility, depends,  first,  upon  the  presence  of  vegetable  and 
calcareous  matters  ;  and,  secondly,  upon  the  soil  being 
well  tilled,  and  the  surface  rendered  permeable  to  the 
atmosphere. 

The  color  of  the  soil  has  an  influence  upon  the  agency 
of  heat  in  inducing  fertility,  and  consequently  early  matu- 
rity of  the  crop.  Several  farm-crops,  in  our  northern 
latitude,  require  a  high  temperature  in  the  soil  to  bring 
them  to  timely  maturity.  Such,  particularly,  are  Indian 
corn,  and,  in  unfavorable  seasons,  the  potato.  White 
soils,  especially  of  clay,  are  heated  with  difficulty,  owing 
not  only  to  color,  but  to  compactness  and  retentiveness 
of  moisture.  Such  are  truly  denominated  cold  soils. 
Black  soils,  abounding  in  vegetable  matter,  heat  rapidly 
under  the  sun's  rays,  and  cool  almost  as  rapidly  when  the 
sun's  rays  are  withdrawn.  Sir  H.  Davy  found  that  a 
rich  black  mould,  which  contained  nearly  one  fourth  of 
vegetable  matter,  had  its  temperature  increased  in  an 
hour,  from  65°  to  88°,  by  exposure  to  sunshine  ;  while  a 
white  chalk  soil  was  heated  only  to  69°  under  the  same 
circumstances. 

Now,  as  the  soil  supplies  all  our  wants,  and  is,  directly 

*  Davy's  Agricultural  Chemistry. 

4  XV. 


38  EARTHS   AND    SOILS. 

or  indirectly,  the  source  of  our  wealth  and  enjoyments,  it 
merits  our  particular  study  and  attention.  The  measure 
of  the  blessings  which  it  confers  on  the  human  family,  is 
wisely  made  to  depend  upon  the  intelligence,  skill,  and 
industry  which  are  employed  in  its  cultivation.  If  these 
are  properly  applied,  the  reward  will  be  bountiful.  If 
they  are  neglected,  want,  vice,  and  wretchedness  will 
ensue. 

To  render  his  farm-stock  profitable,  in  meat,  milk,  and 
wool,  every  farmer  knows  he  must  provide  for  them  an 
abundance  of  wholesome  food,  as  he  must  be  aware  that 
it  is  this  food  which  makes  his  meat,  milk,  and  wool,  and 
gives  the  ultimate  profits.  And  he  takes  care,  if  he  is  a 
good  manager,  so  to  economize  his  food  as  to  yield  him 
the  greatest  return  in  these  products.  We  should  think 
him  very  improvident,  who,  instead  of  feeding  out  roots 
and  forage  to  his  stock,  should  throw  them  away,  or  let 
them  spoil  for  want  of  a  little  care,  or  permit  them  to  be 
consumed  by  his  neighbors'  stock. 

Let  these  remarks  be  applied  to  our  plants.  Our 
farm-crops,  hke  our  farm-stock,  must  be  fed,  if  we  would 
make  them  profitable  to  us  ;  and  the  former,  like  the 
latter,  will  be  profitable  precisely  in  proportion  to  the 
food  we  give  them,  and  the  judicious  care  v/ith  which  we 
give  it.  The  vegetable  lives  and  thrives  upon  animal 
and  vegetable  matters,  after  they  have  become  useless  to 
the  animal,  and  are  reduced,  by  decomposition,  to  a 
liquid  or  gaseous  state.  Every  substance  that  has  once 
belonged  to  an  animal,  has  previously  been  a  vegetable  ; 
and  every  substance  that  has  been  a  vegetable,  whether 
it  be  found  in  a  sohd,  Hquid,  or  aeriform  state,  is  con- 
vertible into  hving  plants.  So  that  it  is  as  important,  in 
good  farming,  to  economize  dung,  or  whatever  will  make 
dung,  and  judiciously  to  feed  it  to  crops,  as  it  is  to  hus- 
band well  the  hay  and  grain  of  the  farm,  destined  to  feed 
and  fatten  the  cattle.  The  soil  is  the  stomach,  the  re- 
ceptacle of  the  food  of  plants,  in  which  manure  is  digested, 
converted  into  substances  that  are  soluble,  that  is,  capable 
of  being  dissolved,  by  the  moisture  of  the  soil  ;  and  of 
afterwards  being  absorbed  by  the  minute  roots  of  plants, 


EARTHS  AND   SOILS.  39 

— as  food,  after  undergoing  the  digestive  process  in  the 
animal  stomach,  is  taken  up  by  the  lacteals.  In  the  ani- 
mal, the  food,  after  undergoing  various  changes,  is  con- 
verted into  flesh,  bone,  sinew,  milk,  wool,  &c.  In  the 
vegetable,  the  food,  in  like  manner,  is  converted  into 
stem,  foliage,  blossoms,  and  fruit,  grain,  or  roots.  Both 
the  animal  and  the  plant  exhaust  the  food  which  nourishes 
them  ;  and  if  we  would  keep  the  animal  fat,  or  the  soil 
fertile,  we  must  continue  to  replenish  the  food. 

We  have  introduced  this  comparison  here,  in  order  to 
impress  more  fully  upon  the  minds  of  our  young  readers, 
the  importance  and  the  means  of  feeding  their  crops. 

Soils  are  variously  classed  by  different  writers.  Von 
Thaer  and  Fellenburgh  have  enumerated  more  than  eighty 
varieties.  Sinclair  has  divided  them  into  sand,  gravel, 
clay,  chalk  or  lime,  peat,  alluvial,  and  loam.  We  shall 
adopt  the  latter  classification,  and  consider  each  separ- 
ately. 

1.  Sandy  soils  are  those  where  sand  most  predomi- 
nates. They  are  loose,  easily  worked,  but  are  not  re- 
tentive of  manure  or  moisture,  owing  to  their  porous 
texture.  They  are  best  adapted  to  tap-rooted  plants,  as 
carrots,  turnips,  clover,  lucerne,  to  Indian  corn,  and  alter- 
nating husbandry.  They  comprise  a  great  portion  of  the 
lands  upon  the  Atlantic  border,  from  New  York  to  the 
Capes  of  Florida,  and  most  of  the  pine  lands  of  the  inte- 
rior. Their  mechanical  texture  is  improved  by  marl,  and 
by  an  admixture  of  clay,  which  often  underlay  them,  or 
abound  in  their  vicinity.  If  the  silex  does  not  exceed 
60  to  65  percent.,  they  are  as  profitably  managed,  under 
good  husbandry,  as  most  other  lands.  Under  the  old 
exhausting  system  they  soon  become  worthless.  If  not 
too  flat  and  wet,  sandy  soils  are  well  adapted  for  sheep, 
which  assist  much  to  keep  up  and  to  increase  their  fertility. 
The  county  of  Norfolk,  in  England,  is  principally  a  sandy 
soil.  Sixty  years  ago  it  gave  but  a  very  lean  product  ; 
but  under  the  alternating  system  of  husbandry,  including 
the  turnip  culture,  it  has  become  the  most  productive  and 
profitable  county  for  agricultural  products  in  England. 
Flanders  is  mostly  sand,  and  a  portion  of  it  was  original- 


40  EARTHS   AND    SOILS. 

ly  poor  and  unproductive  ;  yet  there  is  perhaps  not  now 
a  district  in  Europe  that  makes  a  better  return  for  agri- 
cultural labor.  Where  sands  contain  carbonate  of  lime, 
and  are  kept  in  good  condition,  they  yield  wheat,  barley, 
and  other  farm-crops,  besides  those  first  enumerated,  and 
become  converted  ultimately  into  a  species  of  light  loam. 

The  celebrated  Mr.  Ducket,  of  England,  founded  his 
practice  in  managing  sandy  soils  on  three  principles  :  1. 
He  ploughed  very  deep  ;  a  due  degree  of  moisture  was 
thus  preserved  in  his  light  land,  by  means  of  which  his 
crops  escaped  the  evils  of  drought,  while  his  neighbors' 
crops  suffered  severely.  2.  He  ploughed  seldom,  but 
effectually  covering  all  the  weeds.  He  sometimes  raised 
seven  crops  with  four  ploughings.  One  good  ploughing 
will  always  suffice  to  prepare  sandy  ground  for  a  crop  ; 
and  a  second  ploughing  is  injurious,  if  it  turns  up  the  sod 
or  other  vegetable  matters  to  the  surface.  The  cultivator 
will  frequently  supersede  the  use  of  the  plough,  in  the 
preparation  for  a  crop.  It  is  a  good  practice  to  sow  clo- 
ver or  grass  seeds  with  all  small  grains,  or  broad-cast 
crops,  upon  sands,  to  improve  the  texture,  and  to  impart 
fertihty  to  the  soil.  The  benefits  will  greatly  overbal- 
ance the  expense. 

-  The  Flemings  have  converted  some  districts,  which 
were  originally  a  barren  white  sand,  into  a  most  fertile 
loam.  They  cultivated  at  first  only  to  the  depth  of  three 
or  four  inches  ;  but  gradually  went  deeper  as  the  soil  be- 
came enriched,  until  they  had  got  a  very  deep  soil — and 
now  the  ground,  says  Sinclair,  at  the  commencement  of 
every  rotation,  is  trenched  by  a  shovel  (the  soil  being  very 
loose)  to  the  depth  of  fifteen  to  eighteen  inches,  the  ex- 
hausted surface  is  buried,  and  the  fresh  surface  brought 
up,  enriched  by  the  manure  washed  down  to  it  during  the 
preceding  seven  years. 

The  generic  name  of  a  soil  is  determined  by  the  earth 
which  prevails  in  it  ;  as  clayey,  sandy,  calcareous,  &c. 
Where  two  prevail  to  all  appearance  equally,  then  their 
names  may  be  conjoined,  as  clay  and  sand,  lime  and  clay, 
&c.  The  term  sandy,  according  to  Davy,  should  not  be 
applied  to  a  soil  which  does  not  contain  seven  eighths  of 


EARTHS   AND    SOILS.  41 

sand  ;  sandy  or  gravelly  soils  that  effervesce  with  acids, 
should  be  distinguished  by  the  names  of  calcareous  sands, 
or  calcareous  gravels,  to  distinguish  them  from  those  that 
are  silicious.  The  term  clayey  soil  should  not  be  ap- 
plied to  any  land  that  contains  less  than  one  sixth  of  im- 
palpable matter,  not  considerably  effervescing  with  acids  ; 
the  word  loam  should  be  limited  to  soils  containing  at 
least  one  third  of  impalpable  earthy  matter,  copiously 
effervescing  with  acids.  A  soil,  to  be  considered  as 
peaty,  ought  at  least  to  contain  one  half  of  vegetable  mat- 
ter. In  cases  where  the  earthy  parts  of  a  soil  evidently 
consist  of  the  decomposed  matter  of  one  particular  rock, 
a  name  derived  from  the  rock  may  with  propriety  be 
applied  to  it.  Thus  if  a  fine  red  earth  be  found  immedi- 
ately above  decomposing  basalt,  it  may  be  denominated 
basaltic  soil.  If  fragments  of  quartz  and  mica  be  found 
abundant  in  the  materials  of  the  soil,  which  is  often  the 
case,  it  may  be  denominated  granitic  soil  ;  and  the  same 
principles  may  be  applied  to  other  hke  instances.  In  gen- 
eral, the  soils,  the  materials  of  which  are  the  most  vari- 
ous and  heterogeneous,  are  those  called  alluvial,  or  which 
have  been  formed  from  the  depositions  of  rivers  ;  and  these 
deposits  may  be  denominated  silicious,  calcareous,  or  ar- 
gillaceous ;  and  in  some  cases  the  term  salinic  may  be 
added  as  a  specific  distinction,  applicable,  for  example, 
at  the  embouchure  of  rivers,  where  their  alluvial  remains 
are  overflowed  by  the  sea.  Such  are  some  of  the  rules 
for  classifying  soils  laid  down  by  Loudon,  in  his  Encyclo- 
pedia of  Agriculture. 

We  occupy  a  soil  which  may  be  strictly  denominated 
a  sandy  one.  We  have  dressed  some  of  it  with  blue  clay, 
containing  from  twenty-five  to  thirty  per  cent,  of  carbonate 
of  hme,  say  at  the  rate  of  from  twenty  to  thirty  loads  to 
an  acre,  and  we  are  continuing  the  practice  ;  being  per- 
suaded, from  philosophy,  as  well  as  experience,  that  a 
load  of  blue  clay  is  ultimately  of  more  benefit  to  our  soil 
than  a  load  of  barn-yard  manure. 

In  the  application  of  clays,  or  clay  marl,  and  most  clays 
contain  a  portion  of  carbonate  of  lime,  "  the  great  point 
to  be  obtained,"  says  Professor  Emmons,  in  his  Geologi- 
4# 


42  EARTHS  AND    SOILS. 

cal  Report,  "is  to  secure  a  sufficient  degree  of  fineness, 
that  they  may  be  incorporated  with  the  soil,  and  form, 
strictly  speaking,  a  constituent  part  of  it.  To  attain  this 
object,  it  is  necessary  that  they  should  be  raised  in  the 
autumn,  and  placed  in  heaps,  that  they  may  be  exposed 
to  frosts  and  the  atmosphere  through  the  winter.  To 
assist  still  further  in  the  process  of  pulverization,  it  is  bet- 
ter to  mix  them  with  barn-yard  materials,  straw,  manure, 
and  refuse  of  any  kind,  either  animal  or  vegetable.  This 
course  being  pursued  with  them,  they  should  be  spread 
as  evenly  as  possible  upon  green  sward,  that  they  may 
enjoy  the  further  benefits  of  air,  moisture,  &c.,  by  direct 
exposure  during  the  season.  Besides,  the  grass,  passing 
up  through  the  layer,  will  assist  greatly  in  producing  a 
comminuted  state.  The  succeeding  season  it  is  in  a  state 
to  be  ploughed  in,  when  it  is  duly  prepared  to  become  a 
constituent  part  of  the  soil.  It  is  only  in  this  way  that 
the  stiff  and  adhesive  clays  can  be  broken  up,  and  pre- 
pared for,  and  incorporated  with,  the  other  earths." 

Our  practice  differs  somewhat  from  the  preceding  rec- 
ommendation of  Professor  Emmons.  Our  leisure  time 
for  drawing  clay  is  generally  in  the  winter,  and  we  are 
enabled  to  obtain  it  at  this  season  from  the  clay-banks  in 
Albany.  We  do  not  place  it  in  piles,  or  mix  it  with  other 
materials  ;  but  scatter  it  immediately  from  the  wagon  upon 
the  sward,  as  evenly  as  its  adhesive  properties  will  per- 
mit. In  this  way  it  becomes  better  exposed  to  the  ame- 
liorating influence  of  the  weather.  The  frosts  and  the 
rains  break  down  the  lumps  ;  and  when  the  clay  has  after- 
wards become  dried,  it  is  readily  pulverized  with  the  maul 
or  roller,  and  distributed  by  the  harrow. 

Upon  the  utility  of  employing  vegetable  or  animal  sub- 
stances, in  conjunction  with  marl,  or  other  varieties  of 
calcareous  manure.  Professor  Emmons  remarks  : — 

"  It  must  be  plain  that  carbonate  of  lime,  or  sulphate 
of  lime,  cannot  support  vegetation  without  other  materials. 
It  appears,  however,  that  a  large  proportion  of  the  food 
of  plants  exists  in  the  earth  in  an  insoluble  state  ;  that  it 
is  by  a  chemical  union  of  this  calcareous  matter  and  this 
insoluble  vegetable   substance,  that  it  becomes  soluble, 


EARTHS   AND    SOILS.  43 

and  fitted  for  the  sustenance  of  plants  in  general  ;  hence 
arises  the  mutual  benefit  of  combining  earths  with  vegeta- 
ble and  animal  substances  ;  and  hence,  too,  the  bad  prac- 
tice of  continuing  the  mineral  manures  until  the  whole  of 
the  vegetable  and  animal  matter  is  withdrawn  from  the 
soil  ;  for  by  the  increased  activity  of  the  growing  vegeta- 
ble, the  soil  is  rapidly  exhausted  of  its  nutritious  matter, 
and  it  is  left  comparatively  barren,  if  the  agriculturist 
ceases  to  supply  vegetable  and  animal  manure.  There 
remains  then  but  one  course,  that  of  supplying  directly  the 
necessary  nutriment ;  but  it  is  unquestionably  better  to 
maintain  a  sufficiency  of  vegetable  matter  always  in  the 
earth,  and  never  suffer  a  soil  to  be  exhausted  or  worn  out 
by  overtaxing  its  resources." 

We  subscribe  to  the  Professor's  recommendations, 
though  we  do  not  exactly  agree  with  him  in  his  premises, 
that  all  calcareous  matters  tend  to  accelerate  the  exhaus- 
tion of  organic  matters  in  the  soil.  We  think  this  remark 
will  only  apply  to  caustic  or  quick  lime.  Davy  proved 
that  it  did  not  apply  to  gypsum  ;  and  it  is  generally  con- 
ceded, that  calcareous  soils  are  less  liable  to  be  exhausted 
than  soils  that  are  not  calcareous. 

2.  Gravelly  soils  "  differ  materially  from  sandy," 
says  Sinclair,  "both  in  their  texture  and  mode  of  man- 
agement. They  are  frequently  composed  of  small,  soft 
stones,  sometimes  of  flinty  ones  ;  but  they  often  contain 
granite,  limestone,  and  other  rocky  substances,  partially, 
but  not  very  minutely  decomposed.  Gravel,  being  more 
porous  than  even  sand,  is  generally  a  poor,  and  what  is 
called  a  hungry  soil^  more  especially  when  the  parts  of 
which  it  consists  are  hard  in  substance  and  rounded  in 
form.  Gravelly  soils  are  easily  exhausted,  for  the  animal 
and  vegetable  matters  which  they  receive,  not  being  at- 
tracted by  the  earthy  constituent  parts  of  the  soil,  which 
are  seldom  sufficiently  abundant  for  that  purpose,  are  more 
liable  to  be  decomposed  by  the  action  of  the  atmosphere, 
and  carried  off  from  them  by  water. 

"  Gravelly  soils  are  improved  by  draining,  where  they 
are  troubled  with  springs  ; — by  deep  ploughing  ; — by  mix- 
ing with  them  coats  of  clay,  chalk,  marl,  peat,  or  other 


44  EARTHS   AND    SOILS. 

earth  ; — by  frequent  returns  of  grass  crops  ; — by  repeated 
applications  of  manure  ; — and  by  irrigation,  if  the  water 
be  full  of  sediment,  and  judiciously  applied  on  a  proper 
form  of  surface." — Code  of  Agriculture. 

Gravelly  soils,  like  sandy  ones,  if  dry,  become  soon 
heated  by  solar  influence,  but  they  retain  the  heat  longer 
than  sands.  They  are  therefore  the  earliest  soils,  and 
are  most  liable  to  suffer  from  the  droughts  of  summer. 
Hence  the  crops  upon  them  should  be  upon  a  clover  or 
grass  ley  as  often  as  practicable. 

The  crops  suited  to  these  soils,  are  Indian  corn,  tur- 
nips, clover,  barley,  rye,  peas,  oats,  and,  if  a  portion  of 
the  ground  is  calcareous,  good  crops  of  wheat  may  be 
obtained.  When  they  are  cropped  with  small  grains  or 
summer-ripening  crops,  these  crops  should  be  sown  very 
early.  The  warmth  of  the  soil  will  admit  of  it,  and  the 
crops  may  then  mature  before  they  are  injured  by  the  in- 
tense heats  of  our  mid-summers.  If  gravelly  lands  are 
poor,  or  unfriendly  to  arable  husbandry,  they  should  be 
left  in  wood,  or  planted  in  wood. 

3.  Clay  soils  are  tenacious,  stiff,  very  retentive  of 
moisture,  can  only  be  well  worked  in  favorable  seasons, 
and  require  extra  labor  in  their  tillage.  If  too  dry,  the 
soil  breaks  up  by  the  plough  in  hard  clods  or  lumps.  If 
wet,  it  assumes  the  appearance  of  mortar.  In  either 
case,  pulverization,  the  main  object  of  ploughing,  is  not 
effected.  Yet  clay  soils  yield  heavy  crops,  when  they 
are  got  in  in  good  order.  The  great  expense  of  tillage, 
however,  and  the  rich  herbage  which  they  afford,  induce 
many  farmers  to  appropriate  them  mainly  to  meadow  and 
pasture. 

But  clay  soils  vary  greatly  in  texture,  according  to  the 
quantity  of  other  earths  w^hich  are  commingled  in  their 
composition  ;  and  they  vary  in  fertihty  according  to  the 
quantity  of  vegetable  matter  which  they  contain,  and  the 
nature  of  the  subsoil  upon  which  they  repose  :  if  the  lat- 
ter is  retentive,  and  impervious  to  water,  the  soil  will  be 
wet,  cold,  and  unfriendly  to  those  crops  which  require 
much  heat  to  bring  them  to  maturity.  Clay  soils  are  of 
all  intermediate  qualities  between  a  dead  barren  mass  and 


EARTHS   AND   SOILS.  45 

fine  clay  loams,  which  are  friendly  to  most  farm-crops, 
and  most  profitable  to  the  owner. 

Clay  soils  are  adapted  to  the  growth  of  wheat,  timothy, 
oats,  and,  if  possessing  a  dry  bottom,  to  clover  and  pota- 
toes. When  intended  for  a  spring  crop,  it  is  advantage- 
ous to  plough  in  the  fall,  that  the  frosts  may  break  down 
and  pulverize  the  surface,  and  that  the  vegetable  matters 
turned  under  may  have  the  better  chance  to  rot  in  time  to 
benefit  the  crops. 

There  has  been  recently  introduced  into  Great  Britain 
a  new  and  highly  advantageous  mode  of  improving  clay 
lands  for  tillage,  by  means  of  the  subsoil  plough.  Trench 
ploughing  has  long  been  practised,  and  is  analogous,  in  its 
effects,  to  trenching  with  the  spade,  as  practised  in  Flem- 
ish husbandry.  In  trench  ploughing,  a  second  plough 
follows  in  the  track  of  the  first,  and  throws  a  portion  of 
the  subsoil  to  the  surface.  In  subsoil  ploughing,  no  por- 
tion of  the  subsoil  is  brought  to  the  surface,  but  merely 
loosened,  and  pulverized,  until,  by  the  admission  of  air 
and  of  water,  and  by  their  free  circulation  through  it,  it 
becomes  so  improved  as  to  possess  the  fertility  of  the 
upper  stratum,  and  is  then  blended  with  it.  Air  and 
water  are  charged  with  highly  fertilizing  properties  ;  yet 
if  either  remains  long  stagnant,  it  loses  its  fertilizing  pro- 
perties, and  becomes  prejudicial  to  vegetable  as  well  as 
animal  health  and  growth.  Trench  ploughing  mixes  the 
sub  with  the  surface  soil,  or  rather  the  latter  with  the 
former,  before  the  ameliorating  influence  of  air  and  water 
has  operated  upon  it,  and  therefore  trench  ploughing  often 
proves  prejudicial  to  the  first  and  second  crops.  But 
neither  trench  ploughing  nor  subsoil  ploughing  can  devel- 
ope  all  its  advantages  upon  a  stiff  clay,  w^ith  a  horizon- 
tal surface,  without  the  auxihary  aid  of  w4iat  is  termed 
furrow-draining,  and  of  which  we  shall  speak  more  partic- 
ularly in  our  chapter  upon  draining.  The  effect  of  sub- 
soil ploughing  the,n^  is,  to  free  the  soil  at  all  times  of  an 
excess  of  water,  to  fit  it  for  cultivation,  at  a  much  earlier 
period  in  the  spring,  and  to  increase  its  fertility. 

The  advantages  of  subsoil  ploughing  have  been  partic- 
ularly illustrated  by  Robert  Laing,  Jr.,  in  the  Edinburgh 


46  EARTHS   AND    SOILS. 

Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture,  who  had  practised  it 
two  years.  The  plough  operated  to  the  depth  of  twelve 
to  fifteen  inches,  and  was  worked  by  a  three  and  four- 
horse  team.  "  The  field  in  which  the  operations  were 
commenced,"  says  Mr.  Laing,  [in  1S36,]  "  consisting  of 
ten  Scottish  acres,  was  at  the  time,  and  during  the  whole 
operation,  so  saturated  with  rain,  that  the  horses'  feet 
sunk  in  the  unploughed  ground  from  four  to  six  inches. 
Notwithstanding  the  disadvantages  consequent  upon  the 
wet  state  of  the  field,  the  results  have  been  of  the  most 
flattering  description.  Since  the  work  has  been  finished, 
[the  communication  being  written  two  years  afterwards,] 
little  or  no  water  has  stood  upon  the  surface,  and  in  the 
spring  of  1837,  this  field,  which  was  usually  last  worka- 
ble upon  the  farm,  from  its  wetness,  was  the  first  ;  and 
it  had  the  advantage  of  land  working  like  loam,  when 
compared  with  the  solid  soured  furrow  that  was  wont  to 
be  turned  up."  The  land  thus  managed  produced  in 
1837,  the  season  after  it  was  subsoil  ploughed,  48  bush- 
els of  beans  the  Scottish  acre,  at  least  one  quarter  more 
than  it  would  have  yielded  had  the  field  not  been  subsoil 
ploughed,  and  in  1838,  it  produced  48  bushels  the  Scot- 
tish acre.  The  opinions  of  Mr.  Laing,  of  the  great  ad- 
vantages of  subsoil  ploughing,  are  amply  sustained  by  the 
experience  of  many  farmers,  whose  communications  have 
appeared  in  the  foreign  agricultural  periodicals.  The 
subsoil  plough  should,  however,  be  preceded  by  furrow- 
draining. 

4.  Chalk  soils,  or  those  containing  an  excess  of  calca- 
reous earth,  do  not  much  abound  with  us.  Lime  is  deemed 
essential  in  a  wheat  soil  ;  and  if  it  amounts  to  two  per 
cent,  of  the  tillable  surface,  it  is  considered  adequate  to 
the  wants  of  this  crop.  Soils  derived  from  primitive  for- 
mations seldom  contain  much  if  any  of  this  earth,  and 
hence  the  difficulty  of  raising  w^heat  upon  them.  If  com- 
bined with  clay  and  other  earthy  and  vegetable  matters, 
these  soils  are  very  productive  ;  if  with  sand  or  gravel, 
they  are  light  and  often  unfertile.  Calcareous  earth  has 
a  strong  affinity  for  putrescent  vegetable  and  animal  mat- 
ters, and  increases  the  absorbent  power  of  soils  to  which 


EARTHS   AND   SOILS.  47 

it  is  applied.  It  corrects  the  adhesive  qualities  of  clays, 
and  augments  the  absorbent  and  retentive  qualities  of  sands. 
Hence  the  advantage  of  applying  lime  to  clayey,  and 
clay-marl  to  sandy  lands. 

The  means  of  ameliorating,  or  rendering  productive, 
a  soil  too  calcareous,  are,  to  mix  with  it  sand  or  clay 
loams,  or  pure  clay  ;  or,  where  the  vegetable  matter  is 
deficient,  to  blend  with  it  quantities  of  peat  or  swamp 
earth,  or  yard  dung. 

Tillage  crops  are  best  adapted  to  calcareous  soils,  as 
peas,  turnips,  barley,  clover,  wheat,  and  Indian  corn.  It 
is  difficult  to  bring  these  soils  into  permanent  pasture  or 
meadow. 

5.  Peaty  soils,  are  those  of  our  swamps  and  marshes, 
in  which  vegetable  matter  exists  in  excess,  in  consequence 
of  their  being  habitually  saturated  with  water,  which  has 
prevented  its  decomposition .  On  being  thoroughly  drained, 
some  of  these  soils,  in  which  the  vegetable  has  been  re- 
duced to  something  hke  soft,  black  powder,  or  where  the 
earths  constitute  a  considerable  portion  of  the  surface 
stratum,  have  become  very  productive.  But  where  the 
vegetable  matters  greatly  preponderate,  or  are  coarse  and 
woody,  it  has  been  found  necessary,  in  order  to  render 
them  valuable,  after  draining,  to  bring  on  a  decomposition 
by  paring  and  burning  the  surface,  or  by  the  application 
of  hme,  or  barn-yard  manure  ;  and  sometimes  a  good 
dressing  of  sand,  or  loam,  has  induced  fertility.  The 
cause  of  sterility  is  not  the  want  of  vegetable  food,  but 
the  want  of  this  food  in  a  soluble  or  cooked  state,  pre- 
pared for  the  mouths  and  the  nourishment  of  plants. 

An  author  who  has  successfully  explained  the  nature 
of  peat,  says  Sinclair,  has  adopted  the  following  classifi- 
cation: 1.  Fibrous;  2.  Compact;  3.  Bituminous;  4. 
Peat  mixed  with  calcareous  matter  ;  5.  with  sand  or 
clay;  6.  with  pyrites  ;  7.  with  marine  salt.  These,  he 
contends,  differ  essentially  in  their  composition  and  chem- 
ical qualities  ;  and,  above  all,  each  species  requires  a  dif- 
ferent treatment,  in  order  to  convert  it  either  into  a  soil 
or  into  a  manure. 

The  crops  best  calculated  for  reclaimed  swamps,  or 


48  EARTHS   AND   SOILS. 

peaty  grounds,  are  oats,  potatoes,  rye,  turnips,  carrots, 
and  Indian  corn  ;  clover,  timothy,  red-top,  and  other 
grasses.  When  properly  drained  and  subdued,  hay  crops 
make  good  returns  on  peaty  lands.  By  suffering  the  sec- 
ond crop  of  grass  to  rot  upon  the  ground,  instead  of 
feeding  it  off  as  is  usual,  the  Flemings  have  experienced 
an  immense  increase  of  hay  the  ensuing  year,  and  in  this 
way  their  fenny  grounds  are  converted  into  permanent 
meadow.  The  application  of  gypsum  would,  no  doubt, 
with  us,  in  the  interior,  tend  further  to  increase  the  crop, 
and  perpetuate  fertility. 

If  the  surface  consist  of  bogs  and  other  livmg  vegeta- 
ble matters,  roots,  &c.,  it  must  either  be  burnt  or  carried 
off.  The  ashes  are  useful  if  spread  upon  the  surface, 
and  they  may  also  be  applied  to  uplands  with  great  advan- 
tage. Peat  earth  may  be  also  extensively  and  profitably 
used  for  uplands,  after  it  has  laid  for  a  season  in  the  cat- 
tle or  hog-yard,  and  been  subjected  to  the  tread,  and  be- 
come mingled  with  the  urine  and  other  excrementitious 
matters  of  the  yard  ;  or  after  it  has  been  mingled  in  coni- 
post  with  Hme,  ashes,  or  unfermented  stable  manure,  till 
the  process  of  decomposition  or  fermentation  has  com- 
menced. 

6.  Alluvial  soils  are,  first,  those  which  have  been 
formed  by  the  action  of  the  sea,  which  are  composed 
principally  of  sand,  with  but  little  of  organic  matter 
except  marine  shells,  such  as  the  great  level  sandy  dis- 
tricts lying  along  the  border  of  the  Atlantic  ;  and,  second, 
those  which  have  been  formed  from  the  deposits  of  riv- 
ers, as  upon  the  Mississippi,  Ohio,  and  upon  most  of  the 
secondary  and  minor  streams  of  our  country.  The  com- 
position of  the  latter  depends  upon  the  geological  forma- 
tion of  the  country  from  which  the  deposits  are  brought  ; 
and  the  degree  of  fertility  somewhat  upon  the  force  of 
the  current  by  which  they  have  been  deposited, — the 
coarser  matters  only  being  left  where  the  stream  is  rapid, 
and  the  finer  and  richer  materials,  being  specifically  light- 
er, subsiding  only  where  the  waters  become  tranquil. 
Hence  alluvial  soils  are  various  in  their  character  and 
productiveness.     Those  of  the  first  class  are  generally 


EARTHS  AND    SOILS.  49 

sandy,  except  where  the  formation  is  aided  by  fresh-wa- 
ter streams,  in  which  case  clay  is  found  extensively  mixed 
with  sand,  as  also  marine  shells  and  vegetable  matters. 
Of  the  latter  class  of  alluvial  soils,  those  created  by  riv- 
ers, the  earthy  elements  are  more  generally  blended  with 
a  greater  admixture  of  organic  matters.  Where  the  de- 
posit has  been  made  by  a  rapid  current,  gravel  or  small 
stones  will  predominate,  and  the  soil  will  be  comparative- 
ly poor.  As  the  force  of  the  stream  abates,  sand  will 
next  subside,  while  the  finer  earthy  and  enriching  matters 
will  be  found  deposited  upon  the  borders  of  still  waters. 
Where  alluvial  grounds  are  subject  to  frequent,  or  to 
annual  inundation,  and  the  character  of  the  soil  will  per- 
mit, they  should  be  appropriated  to  permanent  grass.  If 
tilled,  the  soil  is  liable  to  be  worn  away  or  injured,  and 
the  crops  destroyed,  by  freshets  ;  while,  if  in  grass,  the 
deposits  made  by  the  waters  will  tend  to  keep  up  fertility. 
If  not  subject  to  floods,  they  may  be  cropped,  as  uplands 
of  the  same  character  are  cropped. 

7.  Loams. — "  Where  a  soil  is  moderately  cohesive, 
less  tenacious  than  clay,  and  more  so  than  sand,  it  is 
known  by  the  name  of  loam.  From  its  frequency,  there 
is  reason  to  suppose,  that,  in  some  cases,  it  might  be 
called  unoriginal  soil.  At  the  same  time,  a  constant 
course  of  tillage  for  ages,  the  application  of  fertilizing 
manures,  where  necessary,  (as  clay  with  sand,  or  sand 
where  clay  predominates)  will  necessarily  convert  a  soil 
thus  treated  into  a  loam. 

''  Loams  are  the  most  desirable  of  all  soils  to  occupy. 
They  are  friable  ;  can  in  general  be  cuhivated  at  almost 
any  season  of  the  year  ;  are  ploughed  with  great  facility  and 
less  strength  than  clay  ;  bear  better  the  vicissitudes  of  the 
seasons  ;  and  seldom  require  any  change  in  the  rotation 
adopted.  Above  all,  they  are  peculiarly  well  adapted 
for  the  convertible  husbandry  ;  for  they  can  be  altered, 
not  only  without  injury,  but  generally  with  benefit,  from 
grass  to  tillage,  and  from  tillage  to  grass.  They  should 
not,  however,  be  kept  in  tillage  too  long,  nor  while  they 
are  in  cultivation  should  two  white  crops  be  taken  in  suc- 
cession. 

5  XV. 


50  EARTHS  AND   SOILS. 

''  Loams  are  of  four  sorts  :  1.  Sandy;  2.  Gravelly  ; 
3.  Clayey  ;  and,  4.   Peaty. 

"1.  A  sandy  soil  and  a  sandy  loam,  are  easily  distin- 
guished. A  sandy  soil  is  always  loose  and  crumbling, 
and  never  gets  into  a  clod,  even  in  the  driest  weather  ; 
whereas  a  sandy  loam,  owing  to  the  clay  which  is  mixed 
with  it,  retains  a  degree  of  adhesion  or  cloddiness,  after 
wetness  or  drought,  and  will  not  suddenly  crumble  down, 
without  the  application  of  machinery  for  that  purpose.^ 

"  A  mellow,  rich,  crumbling,  sandy  loam,  adhesive 
enough  to  fear  no  drought,  and  friable  enough  to  strain 
off  superfluous  moisture,  if  incumbent  on  a  good  sound 
subsoil,  is  the  most  profitable  of  all  soils,  being  managed 
with  much  less  expense  than  any  other  soil,  and  raising, 
with  advantage,  every  species  of  crop  that  the  climate 
will  admit  of. 

"  2.  Gravelly  loams,  where  warm,  sound,  and  dry,  or 
free  from  springs,  are  useful  soils,  more  especially  in  wet 
seasons  and  climates. 

''3.  A  clayey  or  stiff  loam,  is  nearly  allied  to  brick 
earth.  Though  the  soil  might  originally  have  been  poor, 
cold,  and  hungry,  yet,  if  it  be  well  drained  and  highly 
manured,  it  will  yield  great  crops.  It  is  found  well 
adapted  for  the  dairy. 

"4.  Peat,  in  some  of  its  varieties,  may  likewise  be 
converted  by  culture  into  a  species  of  black,  soft  loam, 
and,  in  that  state,  it  becomes  highly  fertile  and  produc- 
tive."— Sinclair's  Code  of  Agriculture. 

It  has  been  already  mentioned,  that  mould  containing 
a  mixture  of  animal  and  vegetable  remains,  is  an  essential 
ingredient  in  all  fertile  soils  ;  that  the  effect  of  cropping 
is  to  diminish  this  fertilizing  property  ;  and  that  if  vegeta- 
ble and  animal  matters  are  not  returned,  to  make  up  for 
the  exhausting  influence  of  the  crops  taken  off,  the  soil 
will  ultimately  become  sterile  and  barren. 

The  offices  of  the  soil  are,  1.  To  receive  and  digest  the 
food  designed  for  the  growing  plant.  2.  To  serve  as  a 
medium  for  conveying  to  the  spongioles  or  mouths  of 
plants,  the  water  holding  in  solution  the  different  sub- 
stances  which  pass  into  and  nourish  them.     And,    3, 


EARTHS  AND   SOILS.  51 

to  serve  as  a  basis  for  fixing  the  roots  of  plants,  and  main- 
taining them  in  an  upright  position. 

The  agents  in  vegetable  nutrition,  or  growth,  are  air, 
heat,  and  moisture.  The  seed  cannot  germinate  and 
grow,  nor  the  food  be  prepared  nor  transmitted  to  the 
plant,  without  the  united  co-operation  of  these  agents. 
Hence  the  utility  of  draining,  ploughing,  pulverizing,  &c., 
to  render  the  soil  permeable  to  solar  and  atmospheric  in- 
fluence. But  of  these  matters  we  shall  speak  more  fully 
in  another  place. 

Subsoil. 

"  The  value  of  a  soil  depends  much  upon  the  nature 
of  the  subsoil  or  under  stratum.  On  various  accounts  its 
properties  merit  peculiar  attention.  By  examining  the 
subsoil,  information  may  be  obtained  regarding  the  soil 
itself ;  for  the  materials  of  the  latter,  are  often  similar 
to  those  which  enter  largely  into  the  composition  of  the 
former,  though  the  substances  in  the  soil  are  necessarily 
altered,  by  various  mixtures,  in  the  course  of  cultivation. 
The  subsoil  may  be  of  use  to  the  soil,  by  supplying  its 
deficiencies,  and  correcting  its  defects.  The  hazard  and 
expense  of  cultivating  the  surface,  are  often  considerably 
augmented  by  defects  in  the  under  stratum,  but  which, 
in  some  cases,  may  be  remedied. 

"  Subsoils  are,  1.   Retentive  ;  or,  2,  Porous. 

"1.  Retentive  subsoils  consist  of  clay,  or  marl,  or  of 
stone  beds  of  various  kinds. 

"  A  retentive,  clayey,  or  tilly  subsoil,  is  highly  injuri- 
ous. The  land  is  soaked  with  water,  is  ploughed  with 
difficulty,  and  is  not  in  a  condition  to  exert  its  powers, 
until  the  cold,  sluggish  moisture  of  the  winter  be  exhaled. 
By  the  water  being  retained  in  the  upper  soil,  the  putre- 
factive process  is  of  course  interrupted,  and  manures  are 
prevented  from  operating.  The  plants  likewise,  from  the 
roots  being  chilled,  can  make  but  little  progress.  Hence, 
when  grain  is  cultivated,  it  is  always  of  inferior  quality, 
and  the  herbage,  when  in  grass,  is  coarse. 

"  A  clayey  subsoil,  however,  may  sometimes  be  of 
material  advantage  to  a  sandy  soil,  by  retaining  moisture, 


52  EARTHS   AND    SOILS. 

in  such  a  manner   as  to  supply  what  is  lost  by  evapora- 
tion, and  the  consumption  of  plants. 

''  When  soils  are  immediately  situated  upon  a  bed  of 
impervious  rock  or  stone,  they  are  much  sooner  rendered 
dry  by  evaporation,  than  where  the  subsoil  is  clay  or 
marl.  A  stony  subsoil,  when  in  a  position  approaching 
to  the  horizontal,  is,  in  general,  prejudicial,  and,  if  the 
surface  soil  be  thin,  usually  occasions  barrenness  ;  unless 
the  rock  should  be  Hmestone,  and  then  the  soil,  though 
thin,  is  distinguished  for  its  fertility. 

"2.  A  porous  subsoil,  if  not  carried  to  an  extreme, 
is  uniformly  of  great  advantage,  not  only  by  its  admitting 
the  fibrous  roots  of  vegetables  to  extend  deeper,  in  search 
of  moisture  and  nutriment,  but  also  from  its  carrying  oft* 
all  superfluous  moisture,  which  is  less  perfectly  done  ar- 
tificially, by  the  expensive  operation  of  hollow-draining. 

"  Below  clay  and  all  the  variety  of  loams,  an  open 
subsoil  is  particularly  desirable.  It  is  favorable  to  all  the 
operations  of  husbandry  ; — it  tends  to  correct  the  imper- 
fections of  too  great  a  degree  of  absorbent  power  in  the 
soil  above ; — it  promotes  the  beneficial  effects  of  ma- 
nures ; — it  contributes  to  the  preservation  and  growth  of 
the  seeds  ; — and  insures  the  future  prosperity  of  the  plants. 
Hence  it  is,  that  a  thinner  soil  with  a  favorable  subsoil, 
will  produce  better  crops  than  a  more  fertile  one,  incum- 
bent on  wet  clay,  or  cold  or  nonabsorbent  rock. 

"  Lands  whose  substratum  consists  of  clean  gravel  or 
other  silicious  earths,  can  bear  but  little  sun,  owing  to 
their  not  having  a  capacity  of  retaining  moisture,  and 
their  generally  possessing  but  only  a  shallow  surface  oi 
vegetable  mould.''— Smclair's  Code  of  Agriculture. 

The  difficulties  resulting  from  a  retentive  subsoil  are 
likely  to  be  obviated,  in  a  great  measure,  by  improve- 
ments of  recent  introduction  ; — viz.,  furrow-draining,  and 
subsoil  ploughing.  The  first  drains  off  the  surplus  water 
from  the  surface  soil,  and  the  latter  deepens  the  soil,  and 
facilitates  the  passing  off  of  surplus  water. 


IMPROVEMENT   OF  THE    SOIL.  53 

CHAPTER  VI. 

IMPROVEMENT  OF  THE  SOIL. — PRELIMINARY  OPERATIONS. 

If  we  put  into  the  hands  of  the  manufacturer  a  sack 
of  wool,  a  bale  of  cotton,  or  a  bundle  of  flax,  it  is  always 
understood,  that  these  materials,  eminently  calculated  as 
they  are  to  administer  to  our  wants  and  our  comforts, 
must  necessarily  be  wrought  by  the  manufacturer  into 
fabrics,  and  thence  be  transferred  to  the  tailor,  to  be 
converted  into  wearing  apparel,  before  they  can  be  use- 
ful for  the  great  purposes  for  which  they  are  so  admira- 
bly fitted — to  protect  and  embellish  the  human  form. 
When  we  pass  our  meats  and  our  vegetables  into  the  hands 
of  our  wives,  daughters,  or  domestics  in  the  kitchen,  it 
is  well  understood  by  every  one,  that  before  they  are  fit- 
ted for  the  primary  purposes  of  life — for  our  nourishment 
and  the  gratification  of  the  palate — they  must  undergo 
the  culinary  processes  of  cooking.  And  when  we  are 
presented  with  a  goodly  soil,  prolific  in  all  the  substantial 
blessings  of  life — the  primary  source  of  our  food  and 
clothing — we  are  admonished  by  every  thing  around  us, 
that  if  we  would  enjoy  these  blessings,  in  all  their  purity 
and  richness,  we  must,  like  the  manufacturer,  the  tailor, 
and  the  cook,  exert  those  powers  and  faculties  which  God 
has  given  us  for  this  purpose,  in  rendering  this  soil  what 
it  was  designed  to  be,  a  fountain  of  temporal  blessings. 
The  manufacturer,  the  tailor,  and  the  cook  may  abuse 
their  trusts,  and,  from  ignorance  or  indolence,  spoil  or 
waste  what  it  is  their  interest  and  their  duty  to  improve  ; 
and  the  husbandman  may,  by  a  reckless  course,  pervert 
the  high  trust  confided  to  his  care,  in  the  management  of 
the  soil.  They  have  each  their  assigned  duties.  The 
means  of  usefulness  are  before  them.  They  are  endowed 
with  capacities  for  manufacturing  the  cloth,  makina;  up 
the  garment,  cooking  the  food,  and  rendering  and  keeping 
the  soil  fertile  ; — and  their  reward,  certainly  in  temporal 
5* 


54  IMPROVEMENT   OF   THE    SOIL. 

blessings,  will  very  much  depend  upon  the  honesty,  in- 
telligence, and  fidelity  with  which  they  acquit  themselves 
in  their  several  duties.  Every  person  should  consider 
that  he  comes  into  the  world  for  some  purpose  of  useful- 
ness ; — that  nothing  has  been  made  in  vain  ; — that  he  ought 
at  least  to  provide  for  himself  and  his  own  ;  and  that  he 
fulfils  the  high  duties  of  life  in  proportion  as  he  contrib- 
utes, by  his  means,  his  example,  and  his  influence,  to 
improve  the  condition  of  society  at  large.  And  as  his 
capacities  for  improving  the  soil  will  depend  very  much 
upon  the  developement  of  the  powers  of  his  mind,  the 
culture  and  improvement  of  the  mind  should  receive  the 
early  and  constant  care  of  the  husbandman. 

The  natural  elements  and  agents  of  fertility  in  the  soil, 
are  organic  matters,  which  constitute  the  food  of  farm- 
crops,  and  heat,  air,  and  moisture,  which  are  essential  in 
the  preparation  of  this  food,  and  to  its  conversion  into 
grain,  grass,  roots,  &c.  The  first  of  these  is  constantly 
accumulating  upon  the  surface,  by  the  death  and  decay 
of  animals  and  vegetables  ;  the  sun  gives  the  second,  the 
atmosphere  gives  the  third,  and  the  clouds  the  fourth. 
Without  the  aid  of  heat,  air,  moisture,  and  manure,  labor 
and  art  can  do  little  to  render  the  soil  productive  ; — with 
them,  skill  and  industry  need  never  exert  their  powers  in 
vain.  It  is  the  province  of  the  husbandman  to  understand 
the  laws  by  which  these  agents  are  rendered  most  sub- 
servient to  his  use  ;  and  to  assist,  and  in  some  sort  to 
regulate,  their  influence  upon  the  soil  and  upon  vegetable 
growth.  This  he  does  by  clearing  and  cultivation, — by 
rendering  the  soil  permeable  to  heat  and  air,  and  to  the 
roots  of  plants, — by  regulating,  as  far  as  practicable,  the 
supply  of  moisture,  and  by  furnishing  to  the  soil  the  ele- 
ments of  vegetable  food  as  these  become  exhausted  by 
cultivation. 

The  clearing  of  land  for  the  purposes  of  husbandry,  is 
too  well  understood,  when  it  is  required  to  be  practised, 
to  need  illustration  here.  It  consists  in  cutting  down, 
burning,  or  carrying  off  the  timber,  brush,  and  other  mat- 
ters which  obstruct  the  plough,  and  in  baring  and  open- 
ing the  soil  to  the  amehorating  influence  of  the  sun  and 


PRELIMINARY   OPERATIONS.  '  55 

the  atmosphere.  Burning  the  vegetable  matter  upon  the 
surface  of  new  lands,  tends  to  accelerate  then*  fitness  for 
producing  good  crops.  It  converts  much  woody  or  in- 
soluble, into  soluble  matter  ;  corrects  the  natural  acidity 
of  the  soil,  and  imparts  to  it  much  of  the  benefit  which 
results  from  ploughing  and  longer  exposure.  A  good 
burn  is  a  pretty  certain  indication  that  a  good  crop  will 
follow  ;  and  a  bad  burn  is  almost  as  certain  a  precursor 
of  a  bad  crop.  Hence,  in  clearing  up  new  lands,  the 
timber  is  generally  felled,  when  the  fohage  is  most  abun- 
dant, in  June  or  July ;  the  fallow  is  burnt  when  the  fire 
is  likely  to  operate  most  efficiently,  both  in  destroying  the 
vegetable  matter  upon  the  surface,  and  in  ameliorating 
the  soil,  say  in  August  or  early  in  September,  and  the 
first  crop  is  put  in  with  the  harrow  or  drag  soon  after. 

We  cannot  but  remark  here,  that  in  our  zeal  to  clear 
up,  we  generally  carry  the  matter  to  an  unwarrantable 
extreme  ;  every  thing  is  cut  away — the  whole  surface  is 
denuded — stripped  of  its  natural  growth.  We  know  that 
old  forest-trees  will  not  long  bear  an  open  exposure — that 
the  winds  will  prostrate  them  when  deprived  of  the  pro- 
tection of  surrounding  forests  ;  yet  the  young  growth,  if 
left  in  clumps  and  behs  upon  the  bleak  borders,  the  divis- 
ion lines,  about  the  farm-buildings,  or  upon  portions  of 
the  farm  not  adapted  to  ploughland  or  to  meadow,  would 
tend  ultimately  to  enhance  its  value,  by  the  beauty  which 
they  would  impart  to  the  landscape,  the  shelter  and  pro- 
tection which  they  would  give  to  crops  and  cattle,  and 
by  the  resources  which  they  would  give  for  fuel,  fencing, 
and  timber.  The  settler  upon  new  lands  may  preserve, 
without  labor  or  expense,  that  which  it  would  cost  much 
time  and  money  to  produce — that  which  imparts  to  old- 
settled  districts  the  highest  rural  charms,  and  gives  to 
them  much  of  their  intrinsic  value.  To  destroy,  in  this 
case,  is  but  the  labor  of  a  day ;  to  restore,  is  the  work 
of  an  age. 

After  the  timber  has  been  removed  from  forest  lands, 
and  the  first  crop  put  in,  the  stumps  will  remain  for  some 
years,  to  obstruct,  partially,  the  further  operations  of 
improvement.       The    plough    cannot    yet    do    its   office 


56  IMPROVEMENT    OF  THE    SOIL. 

thoroughly  ;  and  neither  draining  nor  freeing  the  surface 
from  stones,  where  these  are  in  the  way,  can  be  managed 
with  economy,  if  the  new  settler  has  the  time  and  the 
means  of  doing  them.  The  most  approved  practice, 
therefore,  is,  to  sow  grass-seeds  with  the  first  crop,  where 
the  land  can  be  spared  for  this  purpose,  and  to  leave  the 
field  in  grass,  till  the  stumps,  or  the  greatest  portion  of 
them,  can  be  readily  drawn  out  with  a  team,  or  turned 
out  with  the  plough.  When  this  can  be  done,  the  other 
operations  of  improvement, — removing  the  surface  stones 
into  walls,  draining,  manuring,  thorough  tillage,  and  alter- 
nation of  crops,  are  more  or  less  necessary,  to  induce  and 
keep  up  fertility.  But  these  seldom  engage  the  attention 
of  the  pioneer  in  improvement.  He  considers  that  he  has 
done  his  part ;  or,  rather,  he  does  not  seem  conscious  that 
he  is  capable  of  going  further.  He  generally  goes  on 
cropping,  without  giving  manure  to  his  soil,  and  without 
seeming  to  know,  that  the  soil  is  every  day  becoming  less 
and  less  capable  of  supplying  his  wants.  The  ulterior 
improvements  must  be  generally  undertaken  by  his  chil- 
dren or  successors,  or  not  undertaken  at  all.  Hence  the 
deterioration  which  has  been  going  on  in  a  great  portion 
of  our  lands  from  the  time  of  their  first  settlement.  And 
hence  the  inducement  of  countless  multitudes  to  emigrate 
to  the  west,  where  the  natural  fertility  of  the  soil  has  not 
yet  been  exhausted  by  a  reckless  system  of  husbandry. 

The  natural  quality  and  condition  of  soils  have  not  so 
much  influence  upon  their  ultimate  products  and  profits, 
as  the  good  or  bad  management  which  they  receive. 
Some  of  the  now  poor  lands  in  the  Atlantic  States,  were 
once  as  rich  and  productive  as  the  now  rich  lands  of  the 
Ohio  and  Mississippi  valleys  ;  and  the  latter,  under  the 
treatment  which  the  former  have  received,  will  as  cer- 
tainly become  poor,  as  that  like  causes  will  produce  like 
effects.  Nature  was  as  bountiful  to  the  east  as  she  was 
to  the  west ;  and  gave  to  us  the  same  means  and  capaci- 
ties for  improving  and  enjoying  her  bounties,  as  she  has 
given  to  them  ;  but  we  have  abused  her  gifts — we  have 
disregarded  her  admonitions — and  we  are  suffering  the 
penalty  of  our  disobedience  in  an  empoverished  soil.     Nor 


ANIMAL  AND  VEGETABLE   NUTRITION.  57 

can  the  west  expect  to  escape  a  similar  calamity,  if  she 
is  alike  unmindful  of  her  duty  and  her  interest. 

But,  though  late,  we  are  beginning  to  see  our  errors, 
and  to  atone  for  them,  by  adopting  a  better  system  of 
farming, — by  improving  the  bounties  of  Providence.  We 
are  renovating  some  of  our  worn-out  lands  ;  and  begin  to 
find,  that,  under  a  better  management,  we  can  not  only 
restore  them  to  primitive  fertility,  but  greatly  increase 
their  productive  properties.  We  have  begun  to  call  into 
exercise  those  faculties,  long  dormant,  which  have  profited 
the  manufacturer  and  the  artisan,  and  to  study,  and  to 
apply  to  husbandry,  those  natural  laws — that  science — 
which  must  ever  govern  its  operations,  wherever  its  labors 
are  wisely  applied.  Instead  of  getting  a  bare  reward  for 
labor,  with  a  diminution  of  fertility,  as  in  former  times, 
we  are  augmenting  the  capacities  of  the  soil,  and  doubling, 
trebhng,  and  quadrupling  its  products.  We  are  now  de- 
monstrating, that  agricultural  pursuits  are  not  only  the 
most  healthy  and  useful,  but  that,  judiciously  managed, 
they  are  a  means  of  wealth,  and  of  independence  and  hap- 
piness, which  few  other  employments  in  life  confer. 

To  point  out  some  of  the  prominent  features  of  this 
better  system  of  husbandry — whereby  the  fertility  of  the 
soil  is  progressively  improved,  the  labors  of  the  husband- 
man better  rewarded,  and  the  country  at  large  more 
benefited,  than  under  the  system  pursued  by  our  fathers, 
will  be  the  subject  of  subsequent  essays. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

ANALOGY  BETWEEN  ANIMAL  AND  VEGETABLE  NUTRITION. 

It  may  not  be  inappropriate  here,  with  a  view  of 
bringing  the  process  of  vegetable  nutrition  and  growth 
more  directly  home  to  the  understanding  of  the  unlearned 
reader,  to  notice  some  of  the  analogies  which  exist  be- 
tween the  animal  and  vegetable  kingdoms. 

Animal  and  vegetable  matters  constitute  the  food  alike 


58  ANALOGY  BETWEEN  ANIMAL 

of  animals  and  vegetables  ;  yet  these  matters  nourish 
neither  the  animal  nor  the  vegetable,  until  they  have  un- 
dergone certain  preparatory  processes,  and  are  reduced 
to  a  soluble  state.  Solid  substances,  so  long  as  they 
remain  solid,  can  benefit  neither  the  animal  nor  the  vege- 
table. 

The  stomach  is  the  place  where  these  preparatory 
processes  are  performed  for  the  animal — the  soil  is  the 
place  where  they  are  carried  on  for  the  vegetable  ; — 
where  the  food  undergoes  the  first  process  of  decomposi- 
tion, is  broken  down  and  rendered  solvent,  by  the  gastric 
juices  of  the  stomach,  and  the  moisture  and  constituents 
of  the  soil. 

After  this  process  is  completed,  the  nutrient  matter  of 
the  animal  food  is  taken  up  by  the  lacteals  of  the  animal, 
and  sent  to  the  lungs,  for  its  final  preparation  to  become 
flesh,  bone,  &c. — and  the  nutrient  matter  of  the  vegetable 
is  taken  up  by  the  spongioles,  or  the  extreme  points  of 
the  minute  root-fibres,  and  sent  to  the  leaves  for  final 
elaboration,  fitted  to  nourish  and  enlarge  all  parts  of  the 
vegetable  system,  and  to  become  grain,  grass,  roots,  &c. 

Leaves  are  to  plants,  what  lungs  are  to  animals, — the 
organs  of  respiration. 

The  air  which  is  inhaled  by  the  animal  in  breathing, 
undergoes  a  material  change  ;  a  portion  of  its  oxygen  is 
imparted  to  the  blood,  with  which  it  comes  in  contact 
in  the  lungs,  and  a  portion  of  the  carbon  is  given  off  by 
the  blood  in  exchange.  By  this  operation  the  blood  is 
fitted  to  become  living  animal  matter.  The  leaves,  in 
Hke  manner,  are  the  organs  of  final  elaboration  to  the 
vegetable  blood,  or  sap.  In  these,  the  sap  is  exposed  to 
atmospheric  influence  ;  and  it  parts  w^ith  oxygen,  and 
retains  and  imbibes  carbon,^  the  principal  element  in 
vegetable  structure,  and  is  thus  fitted  to  become  living 
vegetable  matter. 

The  animal  cannot  grow,  nor  long  continue  to  live, 
without  the  aid  of  the  lungs.  The  vegetable  cannot  grow- 
without  the  aid  of  the  leaves,  nor  continue  to  live  if 
wholly  divested  of  them  during  the  season  of  growth. 

Heat,  air,  and  moisture  are  essential  in  all  the  processes 


AND  VEGETABLE  NUTRITION.  59 

of  nutrition,  vegetable  as  well  as  animal — in  the  stomach 
and  in  the  soil — in  the  lungs  and  in  the  leaves. 

The  ordinary  temperature  of  the  animal  stomach  is 
about  98° — air  is  always  inhaled  by  the  lungs,  and  moist- 
ure is  ever  present.  Hence  the  digestive  process  of 
animals  is  seldom  arrested  from  the  want  of  these  agents. 
The  decomposition  of  vegetable  food,  in  the  soil,  ceases 
when  the  thermometer  falls  below  40°,  and  is  most  active 
at  the  temperature  of  80°.  Hence  vegetable  nutrition 
does  not  go  on  in  the  winter,  in  the  absence  of  heat,  and 
when  most  plants  are  shorn  of  their  elaborating  organs. 

Neither  lungs  nor  leaves  can  perform  their  office 
healthfully,  without  access  to  fresh  air  ;  nor  can  decom- 
position nor  germination  take  place  without  air. 

Water  is  a  necessary  solvent  in  the  preparation  of  an- 
imal and  vegetable  food,  for  the  delicate  mouths  of  the 
lacteals  and  spongioles,  and  is  no  less  indispensable  as  a 
medium  for  transmitting  the  food  to  the  lungs  and  leaves, 
and  from  thence  through  the  animal  and  vegetable  struc- 
tures. 

After  the  blood  of  the  animal  has  been  perfected  in  the 
lungs,  it  is  conducted,  by  minute  arteries,  to  every  part 
of  the  body,  and  is  transmuted,  or  converted,  into  flesh, 
&c.  After  the  sap  has  become  elaborated  or  changed 
in  the  leaves,  it  is  conveyed,  in  like  manner,  to  every 
part  of  the  vegetable  system,  and  is  transmuted,  or  trans- 
formed, into  wood,  fruit,  roots,  &c. 

Vegetables,  hke  animals,  may  be  injured  by  an  excess  of 
food ;  and  when  food  is  too  concentrated,  or  too  rich,  the 
lacteals  and  the  spongioles  become  clogged,  and  unfitted 
to  take  up  and  transmit  aliment  to  the  lungs  and  leaves. 

A  seed  may  be  compared  to  an  egg.  One  contains- 
the  germ  of  a  chick,  the  other  the  germ  of  a  plant.  Na- 
ture has  provided  in  their  envelopes  the  food  proper  for 
both,  in  infancy,  and  until  both  are  set  free  from  their 
envelopes,  and  can  provide  for  themselves.  Through 
the  agency  of  heat  and  air,  the  chick  becomes  animated, 
grows,  and  bursts  its  shell,  and  the  seed  germinates  and 
grows,  and  bursts  its  case — its  roots  strike  into  the  soil, 
and  its  stem  ascends  above  it — the  roots  collect  food, 


60  ANALOGY  BETWEEN  ANIMAL 

and  the  leaves  convert  it  into  vegetable  blood.  In  the 
processes  of  germination  and  of  incubation,  light  must  be 
excluded. 

The  elementary  matters  found  in  animals  and  vegetables 
are  rarely  the  same — the  animal  contains  the  most  nitro- 
gen, the  vegetable  the  most  carbon.  Lime  and  iron  are 
found  in  both. 

In  the  vegetable,  as  in  the  animal,  the  power  eiLists  of 
throwing  off,  through  their  excretory  organs,  matters, 
blended  with  their  food,  not  fitted  to  their  wants,  or  not 
assimilating  with  the  elements  of  their  structure.  Plants 
often  exhale,  or  give  off,  like  some  animals,  a  strong 
odor. 

Thus  it  will  be  seen,  that  plants,  like  animals,  are  or- 
ganized beings,  fed  and  fattened,  like  animals,  upon  vege- 
table and  animal — upon  organic  matters  ;  and  that  the 
same  care,  industry,  and  intelligence  are  required,  at 
the  hands  of  the  farmer,  to  grow  good  crops,  that  are  re- 
quired, in  him,  to  make  good  mu.tton  or  good  pork.  The 
importance  of  providing  well  for  the  vegetable  is  greater 
than  that  of  providing  for  the  animal  ;  for,  while  the  ani- 
mal has  locomotive  power,  and  can  go  abroad  for  food — 
the  vegetable  is  stationary,  and  can  only  send  abroad  its 
roots  for  food — and  where  this  is  deficient  it  must  be  sup- 
plied by  art.  Besides,  to  feed  the  vegetable  well,  is  the 
true  way  of  providing  economically  for  the  animal.  For 
if  the  crops  are  good,  the  means  of  rendering  the  animal 
good  are  always  at  command.  The  animal  manufactures 
the  crops  into  meat,  milk,  and  manure — virtually  into 
money.  But  if  the  crops  are  bad  or  deficient,  an  outlay 
must  be  made  for  cattle-food,  which  will  reduce,  if  not 
eat  up,  the  profits,  or  the  farmer  will  be  correspondingly 
deficient  in  the  raw  material  which  he  should  turn  into 
money.  These  considerations  cannot  fail  of  impressing 
upon  the  mind  of  the  farmer  the  importance  of  keeping 
up  and  of  increasing,  by  all  prudent  means,  the  fertility 
of  his  soil. 

In  the  management  of  cattle,  no  decent  farmer  would 
think  o{  fattening  a  score  of  animals  upon  the  food  that 
would  barely  serve  to  keep  them  in  a  lean  condition.     If 


AND  VEGETABLE   NUTRITION.  61 

he  wanted  to  make  money,  and  to  realize  a  profit  from 
his  beef,  his  policy  would  be,  to  sell  off  half  his  lean 
stock,  and  to  fatten  his  other  half  upon  his  supply  of  food — 
for  what  would  keep  a  score,  would  fatten  half  that  num- 
ber. In  this  way  he  would  evidently  be  a  gainer.  He 
would  save  the  labor  of  feeding  the  animals,  and  have 
converted  into  marketable  meat  the  food  which  they  would 
have  required  to  keep  them  lean,  and  which  then,  in  a 
measure,  would  have  been  lost.  We  go  upon  this  hypo- 
thesis,— if  an  animal  requires  20  lbs.  of  forage  to  supply 
daily  exhaustion,  it  cannot  increase  in  flesh  upon  this  bare 
supply;  but  if  the  animal  can  digest  40  lbs.  of  food  per  day, 
or  double  what  is  necessary  to  supply  absolute  want,  ail 
the  additional  20  lbs.,  or  most  of  it,  goes  to  the  increase 
of  meat,  milk,  &c.  Now  let  us  apply  these  remarks  to 
crops.  A  farmer  cultivates  20  acres  of  corn,  spreading 
upon  each  acre  five  loads  of  manure.  If  he  gets  30  bushels 
an  acre,  he  thinks  he  does  well.  His  labor  upon  each  acre 
is  worth  $15 — or  on  the  whole  20  acres  it  is  worth 
$300 — and  he  gets  600  bushels  of  corn,  which,  at  50 
cents  per  bushel,  just  remunerates  him  for  his  labor. 
His  crop,  like  the  lean  animal,  is  but  so  so.  He  gets 
stalks,  but  comparatively  little  corn.  Now  suppose  the 
food  that  is  given  to  the  20  acres,  sufficient  just  to  keep 
in  it  the  breath  of  life,  if  this  figurative  expression  is  ad- 
missible, is  all  applied  to  five  acres,  which  may  be  term- 
ed stall-feeding — let  us  see  what  would  be  the  result. 
We  maintain,  and  our  experience  for  years  will  warrant  us 
in  the  declaration,  that  the  average  product,  under  this 
system  of  stall-feeding  corn,  may  be  safely  stated  at  80 
bushels  the  acre.  Thus  the  product  of  five  acres  would  be 
400  bushels,  and  the  expense  of  culture,  at  $15  per  acre, 
$75 — showing  a  profit  of  one  hundred  and  twenty-five 
dollars,  or  twenty-five  dollars  an  acre.  Thus  five  acres, 
well  fed,  would  be  worth  $125  per  annum  more  than 
20  acres  badly  fed. 

The  comparisons  we  have  made  will  be  sufficient  to 
justify  us  in  suggesting,  as  rules  in  farming — 

1.  J\*ot  to  work  more  land  than  can  be  well  worked 
and  well  fed  ;  and, 

6  XV. 


62  FURTHER   IMPROVEMENT 

2.  J^ot  to  keep  more  cattle  than  the  crops  of  the  farm 
will  feed  and  fatten^  and  than  may  he  made  profitable  to 
the  owner. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

FURTHER    IMPROVEMENT    OF    THE    SOIL. 

We  have  seen,  in  the  preceding  chapters,  what  must 
be  apparent  to  every  intelHgent  observer,  that  the  improve- 
ment of  the  soil  by  the  first  settlers,  has  generally  ter- 
minated in  clearing  up  the  land,  and  in  rendering  it  sub- 
servient to  their  personal  and  immediate  wants  ;  and  that 
the  further  progress  in  its  cultivation,  has  been  rather  to 
wear  it  out,  and  exhaust  its  fertihty,  without  attempting 
to  husband,  or  even  to  develope  all  its  resources  of  wealth. 
We  have  said,  that  under  a  better,  a  more  modern  sys- 
tem of  husbandry,  a  considerable  portion  of  our  lands, 
hitherto  unproductive,  may  be  rendered  of  great  value  ; 
that  the  fertility  of  the  soil  may  be  kept  up  in  lands  already 
subjected  to  culture — and,  where  they  have  been  empov- 
erished  by  severe  cropping,  that  they  may  be  renovated, 
and  may  be  made  to  produce  as  much  and  more  than 
ever.  This  better,  or  more  modern  system  of  husbandry, 
of  which  we  speak,  is  new  only  comparatively,  and  the  term 
new  is  used  in  contradistinction  to  the  old  system,  which 
is  generally  adopted  in  the  first  settlement  of  a  country, 
in  some  degree  as  a  matter  of  necessity  ;  but  which,  being 
once  established,  has  been  too  often  persisted  in  till  it  has 
empoverished  most  of  the  old-settled  districts  upon  our 
Atlantic  border,  and  is  already  causing  indications  of 
premature  exhaustion  and  poverty  in  some  districts  of 
the  west.  This  deterioration  particularly  happens  in 
countries  like  our  own,  where  new  and  virgin  soils  are 
constantly  inviting  to  emigration.  What  we  denominate 
the  new  system  of  husbandry  has  long  been  in  operation 
in  the  valley  of  the  Po,  in  Italy,  and  in  Flanders  ;  for 
the  last  half  century  it  has  been  gaining  strength  in  Great 


OF   THE    SOIL.  63 

Britain,  and  is  at  present  carried  to  a  higher  degree  of 
perfection  in  Scotland,  probably,  than  in  any  other  part 
of  Europe.  It  has,  moreover,  for  some  time,  been 
making  its  way  into  the  United  States,  where  its  followers 
are  daily  and  rapidiy  increasing.  Wherever  it  has  long 
been  in  operation  among  us,  it  has  greatly  increased  the 
products  of  the  soil,  and  the  value  of  the  land  ;  and  yet  in 
no  district  do  we  beheve  that  half  its  advantages  have 
been  developed. 

In  the  details  of  practice  under  the  new  system,  much 
will  depend  upon  climate,  soil,  and  upon  the  distance  and 
demands  of  the  market.  Where  the  market  is  remote, 
the  coarser  products  must  be  concentrated  in  meat,  wool, 
butter,  cheese,  and  other  articles,  of  the  least  expensive 
transportation.  Near  navigable  waters,  and  in  the  vicin- 
ity of  large  towns,  hay,  roots,  fruit,  and  coarse  grains,  may 
be  more  profitably  cultivated.  The  products  of  the  soil, 
as  well  as  the  demand  for  them,  must  also  vary  with  lati- 
tude. Grain,  pulse,  roots,  grass,  and  domestic  animals, 
are  the  staples  of  our  northern  districts  ;  rice,  cotton,  and 
tobacco  constitute  the  principal  products  of  the  southern 
part  of  our  Union  ;  while  the  torrid  zone  produces  coffee, 
sugar,  molasses,  &c.  Though  there  are  no  definite  rules  of 
practice  that  will  apply  to  all  zones,  or  all  soils,  there 
are  general  principles,  and  essential  requisites,  which  have 
a  general  appHcation.  In  all  situations,  organic  matters 
constitute  the  food  of  plants  ;  in  all  situations,  heat,  air, 
and  water  are  the  essential  agents  to  prepare  and  convey 
this  food  to  the  mouths  of  plants,  to  circulate  the  vege- 
table blood,  to  assimilate  it  with  vegetable  structure  ; 
and  in  all  cases  are  capital,  skill,  and  industry  advanta- 
geously employed  in  aiding,  and  in  some  measure  con- 
trolling, the  operation  of  these  natural  elements  and  agents 
of  vegetable  nutrition  and  growth. 

The  modern  improvements  in  husbandry,  consist  prin- 
cipally,— 

1.  In  manuring  ; 

2.  In  draining  ; 

3.  In  good  tillage  ; 

4.  In  alternating  crops  ; 


64  FURTHER  IMPROVEMENT 

5.  In  root  culture  ;  and, 

6.  In  substituting  fallow  crops  for  naked  fallows. 
Most  of  these  are  necessary  to  good  farming,  in  a  far 

greater  degree  than  they  have  been  hitherto  considered. 
They  are  the  distinguishing  features  of  the  new  husband- 
ry ;  and  as  they  are  practised  with  more  or  less  intelli- 
gence and  fidelity,  in  that  proportion  are  they  likely  to 
advance  the  interests  of  the  farmer,  and  to  profit  the 
country. 

We  intend  to  bestow  some  notice  upon  each  of  these 
branches  of  improvement ;  and  shall  endeavor  to  explain, 
as  we  go  along,  their  operation  upon  the  soil,  separately 
and  conjointly.  In -the  remarks  we  shall  offer,  it  will  be 
our  object  rather  to  explain  the  principles  upon  which  the 
new  system  is  conducted,  and  which  have  a  common 
application,  and  to  demonstrate  their  beneficial  influence 
in  husbandry  generally,  than  to  detail  the  minutiae  of  prac- 
tice, which  must,  in  some  degree,  be  influenced  and  con- 
trolled by  a  variety  of  circumstances. 

If  we  overstock  the  farm,  that  is,  attempt  to  keep 
twice  as  many  cattle  upon  it,  as  our  pasture  and  hay  will 
support  in  a  thriving  condition — every  one  will  tell  us 
that  we  don't  work  it  right ;  that  our  cattle,  instead  of 
being  a  profit,  under  such  management,  will  turn  out  to  be 
a  loss  ;  that  we  expend  our  labor  and  our  forage,  without 
improving  their  condition,  or  obtaining  any  corresponding 
return.  Such  is  precisely  the  case  with  our  crops.  If 
we  but  half  feed  them,  they  will  be  meager,  and  but  illy 
repay  us  for  their  culture.  x\hhough,  as  w^e  have  ob- 
served, every  one  can  see  the  folly  of  half  starving  cattle, 
few  seem  to  perceive  the  folly  of  half  starving  crops, — or, 
if  they  see,  they  do  not  seem  inclined  to  profit  from  their 
knowledge.  There  is  many  a  farmer,  who,  under  the 
old  system,  is  scrupulously  economical  of  his  cattle-feed, 
knowing  that  food  makes  meat,  milk,  &c.,  but  who  is 
perfectly  reckless  of  his  manure,  the  food  of  his  crops  ; 
apparently  forgetting,  that  crops  are  to  constitute  his  cat- 
tle-food, and  that  they  will  be  abundant  and  nutritious  pre- 
cisely in  proportion  to  the  food  he  gives  them,  and  the 
care  which  he  bestows  in  their  culture.      The  farmer  upon 


OF  THE    SOIL.  65 

new-settled  lands,  acts  very  niuch  like  the  prodigal  son 
of  wealth,  who  finds  a  treasure  in  his  hands,  and  who, 
without  inquiring  how  it  came  there,  or  how  it  should  be 
preserved,  exhausts  it  recklessly,  without  regard  to  duty 
or  ultimate  benefit.  So  the  farmer,  under  the  old  sys- 
tem, seems  to  have  regarded  the  treasures  of  the  soil 
as  a  patrimonial  inheritance,  conferred  by  Providence, 
for  his  especial  benefit,  and  to  have  gone  on  and  wasted 
it,  regardless  of  the  interests  of  society  and  of  his  off- 
spring. The  consequence  has  been,  that  he  who  has 
wasted  the  treasures  of  the  soil,  like  the  spendthrift,  has 
often  thereby  consigned  his  children  to  poverty  and  to 
want,  or  driven  them  to  other  employments,  by  the  in- 
fluence of  his  bad  example. 

The  first  requisite,  therefore,  for  improving  the  fertili- 
ty of  the  soil,  is  to  provide  plenty  of  food  for  the  crops 
which  it  is  destined  to  nourish.  The  meal-chest  must 
be  occasionally  replenished,  or  it  will  not  long  serve  to 
supply  the  wants  of  the  family.  The  kine  must  have 
daily  her  forage,  or  her  grain,  or  she  will  withhold  her 
accustomed  tribute  of  milk.  The  field  which  yields  an 
annual  contribution  to  the  husbandman,  will  become  ster- 
ile, if  nothing  is  returned  to  replace  the  vegetable  matters 
continually  carried  off.  Philosophers  have  speculated  for 
ages,  as  to  lohat  constitutes  the  food  of  plants.  With- 
out recapitulating  the  various  theories  which  have  had 
their  day,  upon  this  point,  every  farmer  can  readily  re- 
spond to  the  question,  from  personal  knowledge — that  it 
is  MANURE — vegetable  and  animal  matters — which  con- 
stitute the  true  food  of  farm-crops.  Mineral,  fossil,  and 
earthy  substances  may  meliorate  the  soil,  and  increase  its 
capacities  for  the  healthy  developement  and  maturity  of 
plants,  or  may  impart  wholesome  stimuli  to  their  organs ; 
but  vegetable  and  animal  substances,  after  all,  constitute 
mainly  the  food  of  plants.  Crops  are  always  good,  on 
well-prepared  ground,  where  these,  in  a  soluble  state,  are 
known  to  abound  ;  and  they  are  always  defective,  or 
prove  a  failure,  where  these  are  wanting.  Farmers 
should  hence  regard  manure  as  a  part  of  their  capital — 
as  money — which  requires  but  to  be  properly  employed, 
6* 


66  IMPROVEMENT   OF  THE    SOIL  BY 

to  return  them  compound  interest.  They  should  hus- 
band it  as  they  would  their  cents,  or  shillings,  which  they 
mean  to  increase  to  dollars.  They  should  economize 
every  animal  and  vegetable  substance  upon  the  farm,  and 
when  it  has  subserved  other  useful  puposes,  apply  it,  by 
mixing  it  properly  with  the  soil,  to  the  increase  of  the 
coming  harvest — put  it  to  interest,  that  it  may  return  the 
owner  its  per  centage  of  profit,  in  grain,  roots,  and  for- 
age, and  ultimately  in  the  increase  of  meat,  and  in  the 
products  of  the  fleece  and  the  dairy.  Every  load  of 
manure,  well  applied  to  the  farm,  will  increase  its  prod- 
ucts to  the  value  of  one  dollar.  The  farmer,  therefore, 
who  wastes  a  load  of  manure,  is  as  reckless  and  improvi- 
dent, as  he  who  throws  away  a  bushel  of  corn.  Not 
only  what  is  denominated  dung,  as  the  contents  of  the 
cattle  and  hog  yards,  and  the  clearings  of  the  stable, — 
the  amount  of  which  may  be  greatly  increased,  by  stalks, 
weeds,  vines,  and  other  vegetable  matters, — may  be  trans- 
formed into  farm  produce — but  the  rich  earth  of  swamps, 
ditches,  and  ponds,  the  leaves  of  the  forest,  urine,  soap- 
suds, &c.,  are  all  convertible  to  a  like  use.  He  that  will 
not  feed  his  crops  with  manure,  should  not  complain  if 
.  his  crops  fail  to  feed  him  with  bread. 


CHAPTER  IX. 


IMPROVEMENT    OF    THE     SOIL    BY    ANIMAL    AND    VEGETABLE 
MANURES. 

The  great  sources  of  fertility  to  the  farm,  are  the  ref- 
use of  the  crops  which  they  bear,  modified  by  the  farm- 
stock,  and  preserved  and  judiciously  applied  by  the  hus- 
bandman. There  is  not  a  vegetable  matter  grown  upon 
the  farm,  be  it  considered  ever  so  useless  or  noxious,  but 
will,  after  it  has  served  ordinary  useful  purposes,  impart 
fertility  to  the  soil,  and  contribute  to  the  growth  of  a 
new  generation  of  plants,  if  it  is  judiciously  husbanded 
and  applied.     There   is  not  an   animal  substance,  be  it 


ANIMAL  AND  VEGETABLE   MANURES.  67 

solid,  liquid,  or  gaseous, — be  it  bone,  horn,  urine,  hair, 
wool,  or  flesh,  or  the  gases  which  are  generated  by  the 
decomposition  of  these  matters, — but,  with  like  care  and 
skill,  may  be  converted  into  new  vegetable,  and  after- 
wards into  new  animal  matters.  To  economize  and  ap- 
ply all  these  fertilizing  materials  is  the  province  and  the 
duty  of  the  husbandman.  To  aid  him  in  this  useful  labor, 
is  the  object  of  this  essay.     And, 

1st.  Of  the  cattle-yard.  This  should  be  located  on 
the  south  side  of  and  adjoining  the  barn.  Sheds,  sub- 
stantial walls,  or  close  board-fences,  should  be  erected 
at  least  on  the  east  and  west  sides,  to  shelter  the  cattle 
from  cold  winds  and  storms — the  size  and  the  divisions 
to  be  adapted  to  the  stock  which  it  is  intended  to  feed. 
Excavate  the  centre,  or  some  other  part  of  the  yard, 
placing  the  earth  removed  upon  the  borders,  which  may 
be  ten  to  fourteen  feet  broad,  or  upon  the  lower  sides, 
where  there  is  a  descent,  so  that  the  liquids  will  all  run  to 
the  centre,  and  the  borders,  which  should  be  left  gently 
inclining,  will  remain  dry  and  firm,  for  feeding  the  cattle 
upon.  The  centre  may  be  from  two  to  five  feet  lower  than 
the  borders.  The  labor  may  be  done  principally  with 
the  plough  and  scraper,  and  smoothed  off  with  the  shovel 
and  hoe.  We  were  employed  two  days  and  a  half,  with 
two  hands  and  a  team,  in  giving  a  cattle-yard  the  desired 
shape.  When  the  soil  of  the  yard  is  not  sufficiently  com- 
pact to  hold  water,  or  is  not  likely  to  become  so  by  the 
tread  of  the  cattle,  or  the  puddling  efl!ects  of  the  manure, 
the  bottom  should  be  bedded  with  six  or  eight  inches  of 
clay,  well  beat  down,  and  well  covered  with  gravel. 
This  is  seldom  however  necessary.  Our  yards  are  upon 
a  sand  loam,  and  yet  the  liquids  never  sink  into  the  earth. 

When  the  yard  is  prepared,  the  first  thing  done  should 
be  to  overlay  the  whole  bottom  with  six  to  twelve  inches 
of  peat  or  swamp  earth,  where  it  is  at  command  ;  and 
where  it  is  not,  vj\i\\  earth  from  ditches,  the  road-side,  or 
other  rich  deposits.  It  is  then  fit  for  the  reception  of 
the  cattle,  and  of  straw,  coarse  hay,  corn-stalks,  and 
other  litter  of  the  farm  ;  and  subsequently,  as  they  may 
be  gathered,  the  weeds,  potato  and  pumpkin  vines,  and 


68  IMPROVEMENT    OF   THE    SOIL   BY 

Other  vegetable  matters.  These  materials  will  absorb  or 
take  up  the  urine  and  other  liquids,  and,  becoming  incor- 
porated with  the  dung,  double  or  treble  the  ordinary  quan- 
tity of  manure.  During  the  continuance  of  frost,  the 
excavation  gives  no  inconvenience  ;  and  when  the  weath- 
er is  soft,  the  borders  afford  space  for  feeding  the  cattle, 
and  for  a  dry  passage  to  the  barn.  In  this  way  the  urine 
is  saved,  and  the  waste  incident  to  rains,  &c.  prevented. 
The  barns  and  sheds  which  adjoin  the  yards,  should  be 
provided  with  eve-gutters,  w-hich  should  discharge  out- 
side of  the  yard,  so  that  the  waters  from  the  roofs  may 
pass  off. 

As  a  further  precaution  against  waste  by  rains,  a  cis- 
tern or  tank  may  be  sunk  near  the  yard,  into  which  an 
under  drain  may  be  made  to  conduct  the  liquids,  w^hen 
they  are  likely  to  accumulate  to  excess.  These  Hquids 
may  be  pumped  into  casks  upon  carts,  and  employed  to 
great  advantage  upon  grass  or  arable  crops.  The  Flem- 
ings call  these  liquids  the  cooked  food  of  their  crops. 

To  guard  against  the  wasting  influence  of  the  sun  in 
summer,  a  roughly  constructed  covering,  supported  by 
posts,  may  be  erected  over  the  central  depot.  This  is 
seldom  necessary  under  our  mode  of  management,  which 
requires  a  thorough  cleaning  of  the  yard  every  spring, 
for  the  corn,  potato,  and  other  root  crops. 

The  cattle  should  be  kept  constantly  yarded  in  winter, 
except  when  let  out  to  water,  not  only  because,  if  suf- 
fered to  run  at  large,  they  poach  and  injure  the  fields  and 
meadows,  but  because  they  waste  their  dung  ;  and  the 
yard  should  be  frequently  replenished  with  fresh  litter. 
Upon  this  plan,  from  ten  to  twelve  loads  of  manure  may 
readily  be  obtained,  every  spring,  from  each  animal  win- 
tered in  the  yard.  If  the  manure  from  the  horse-stables, 
and  from  stalled  neat  cattle,  be  added,  the  quantity  will 
not  only  be  proportionally  increased,  but  the  quality  im- 
proved. Whenever  the  yard  is  thoroughly  cleaned  for 
spring  crops,  it  ought  to  be  again  bedded  with  fresh  earth, 
and  well  littered. 

2d.  The  stables,  whether  occupied  by  horses  or  cattle, 
may  be  made  to  contribute  much  to  the  value  of  the  yard 


ANIMAL  AND  VEGETABLE   MANURES.  69 

dung,  by  their  urine,  which  may  be  conducted  into  the 
yard  by  paved  or  other  conduits,  leading  from  the  stables 
to  the  yard.  In  these,  too,  litter  may  be  as  profitably 
employed  to  increase  the  dung,  and  to  promote  the  health 
and  comfort  of  the  animal,  as  in  the  yard  or  open  sheds. 
The  dung  from  the  horse-stables,  if  suffered  to  lie  in 
mass,  is  apt  to  heat  and  become  fire-fanged,  as  it  is  term- 
ed, which  very  much  impairs  its  quality.  Where  there 
are  cellars  under  stables,  the  dung  is  thrown  down  into 
them,  and  is  there  protected  from  the  wasting  influence 
of  the  weather  ;  but  even  here  it  is  liable  to  suffer  injury 
unless  hogs  are  permitted  to  root  among  it,  or  unless  the 
cellar  is  frequently  cleaned  out.  An  approved  practice 
is,  to  scatter  the  dung  from  the  stables  over  the  cattle- 
yard,  which  thus  retards  fermentation,  prevents  waste, 
and  produces  a  homogeneous  mass  of  excellent  manure. 

3d.  The  hog-pen.  Hogs  are  excellent  animals  for  man- 
ufacturing manure,  if  they  are  furnished  with  the  raw  ma- 
terial, as  peat  earth,  straw,  weeds,  &c.,  and  a  suitable 
place  for  conducting  the  process.  The  composts  of  their 
formation  are  among  the  cheapest  and  the  best  that  are 
used  upon  the  farm.  The  slops  of  the  kitchen,  the  weeds 
of  the  garden,  the  refuse  fruits  of  the  orchard,  and  the 
offal  of  the  farm,  are  readily  converted,  by  these  swinish 
laborers,  into  meat  or  manure.  Hogs  are  profitable  la- 
borers, and  should  be  employed  to  as  great  an  extent 
upon  the  farm  as  the  proprietor's  circumstances  will  per- 
mit. 

4th.  The  sheep-fold  may  be  made  an  abundant  source 
of  fertility  to  the  farm.  Economy  in  its  management  con- 
sists in  giving  abundance  of  litter,  repeated  at  short  inter- 
vals, sufficient  to  absorb  the  urine,  prevent  wasting  exha- 
lations, and  secure  health  to  the  flock — and  in  applying 
the  dung  in  its  recent  or  unfermented  state. 

5th.  Composts.  These  are  an  artificial  mixture  of 
vegetable  or  animal  matters,  with  earthy  or  mineral  sub- 
stances, and  may  be  profitably  resorted  to  in  two  contin- 
gencies, viz.,  first,  to  arrest  and  detain,  for  useful  purpos- 
es, fertihzing  matters  which  might  otherwise  be  wasted  and 
lost — as  the   urine  of  animals,   or  the  gaseous   matters 


70  IMPROVEMENT   OF  THE   SOIL  BY 

which  are  evolved  from  animal  or  vegetable  substances 
while  undergoing  fermentation.  And,  secondly,  to  ren- 
der soluble,  or  available  as  the  food  of  plants,  matters 
which  are  not  already  so,  as  swamp  earth,  woody  fibre, 
&c.  There  is  nothing  added  to  the  elements  of  fertility 
by  mixing  organic  with  inorganic  matters  in  a  compost- 
heap.  The  advantage  in  one  case  is  \i\saving  that  which 
would  otherwise  be  lost  ;  and  in  the  other,  of  rendering 
useful  that  which  is  otherwise  useless.  Earthy  matters 
absorb  and  retain  the  fertilizing  properties  of  liquids  and 
gases,  if  placed  in  juxtaposition,  or  in  contact  with  them, 
and  impart  them  again  to  growing  plants.  Thus  a  fer- 
menting dung-heap  will  enrich  the  stratum  of  earth  with 
which  it  is  covered,  by  the  gases  which  it  gives  off;  thus 
the  earthy  matters  with  which  we  bed  our  cattle-yards 
become  rich  in  the  elements  of  fertility,  by  the  urine  and 
juices  of  the  dung  which  they  there  imbibe  ;  and  thus  the 
inert,  insoluble  matter  of  peat-swamps  is  rendered  soluble 
and  enriching,  by  bringing  it  in  contact  with  recent  ma- 
nure, or  other  heating  and  fermenting  substance.  It  is 
the  business  of  the  farmer  to  calculate,  upon  the  foregoing 
principles,  and  upon  the  proximity  and  cost  of  the  mate- 
rials, to  what  extent  composts  may  be  made  profitable  in 
the  economy  of  the  farm.  To  some  they  are  highly  use- 
ful ;  while  to  others,  like  Franklin's  whistle,  they  may 
cost  too  dear. 

There  are  several  other  animal  and  vegetable  sub- 
stances, which  every  farmer  has  more  or  less  at  com- 
mand, or  which  he  may  have  at  command,  besides  his 
cattle-dung,  which  may  be  made  to  contribute  largely  and 
economically,  to  keep  up  and  increase  the  fertility  and 
products  of  his  lands.  We  will  notice  some  of  them 
briefly  in  detail. 

1.  Bone-dust^  or  crushed  bones.  The  bones  of  the 
ox,  according  to  Davy,  consist  of  51  parts  in  100  of 
decomposable  animal  matter,  37  of  phosphate  of  lime,  10 
of  carbonate  of  lime,  and  1.3  of  phosphate  of  magnesia. 
All  these  matters  impart  fertility,  and  are  necessary  ele- 
ments in  the  food  of  plants.  They  are  species  of  con- 
centrated, or  portable  manure  :  concentrated,  inasmuch 


ANIMAL  AND  VEGETABLE   MANURES.  71 

as  two  bushels  of  bone-dust,  or  crushed  bones,  properly 
applied,  will,  upon  some  soils,  do  as  much  good  as  a  load 
of  barn-yard  manure  ;  portable,  because  they  may  be 
transported  at  one  tenth  the  expense  of  their  equivalent 
of  yard-dung.  Bone-dust  is  comparatively  a  new  ma- 
nure, at  least  in  the  United  States,  though  it  has  been 
long  highly  prized,  and  extensively  used,  in  Great  Brit- 
ain. Such  have  been  its  magic  eftects  in  British  hus- 
bandry, and  such  the  increasing  demand  for  it  there,  that 
bones  to  the  value  of  more  than  $800,000,  it  is  said,  are 
annually  imported  into  that  country,  to  enrich  the  soil,  in 
addition  to  those  which  the  kingdom  furnishes  ;  and  it  is 
announced  in  one  of  her  late  agricultural  periodicals,  that 
the  use  of  this  manure  is  actually  adding  sixteen  millions 
of  bushels  of  grain  annually  to  her  agricultural  products. 
This  great  source  of  fertility  is  now  engaging  the  atten- 
tion of  the  American  farmer,  and  some  mills  have  been 
put  in  operation  near  Boston,  New  York,  Albany,  Wa- 
terford,  &c.,  and  there  is  no  doubt  but  the  use  of  this 
fertilizing  material  will  be  rapidly  and  profitably  ex- 
tended. We  shall  speak  further  of  its  importance,  and 
the  modes  of  applying  it,  in  a  chapter  appropriated  to 
this  subject. 

2.  Horn-shavings.  These  consist  of  the  chips  and 
refuse  of  the  horns  and  hoofs  of  neat  cattle,  from  comb- 
factories.  Although  more  limited  in  quantity  than  the 
bones  of  animals,  they  may  be  had  in  considerable  amount, 
and  are  equal,  and,  according  to  Davy,  superior,  to 
crushed  bones,  in  their  fertihzing  influence  upon  the  soil. 
From  500  grains  of  ox-horn  Mr.  Hatchet  obtained  only 
1.5  grains  of  residuum,  and  not  quite  half  of  this  was 
phosphate  of  lime — the  residue  being  decomposable  ani- 
mal matter.  "  The  animal  matter  in  them,"  says  Davy, 
"  seems  to  be  of  the  nature  of  coagulated  albumen,  and 
it  is  slowly  rendered  soluble  by  the  action  of  water.  The 
earthy  matter  in  horn,  and  still  more  that  in  bones,  pre- 
vents the  too  rapid  decomposition  of  the  animal  matter, 
and  renders  it  very  durable  in  its  effects." — t^g.  Chem. 
With  these  may  be  classed  the  piths  of  horns,  or  the  resi- 
due of  cattle's  horns  after  the  comb-maker  has  taken  all 


72  IMPROVEMENT   OF  THE    SOIL  BY 

that  is  fit  for  his  use.  These  may  be  either  cut  into 
pieces  upon  a  block,  with  an  axe,  so  as  to  be  readily- 
buried  with  the  plough,  or  broken  in  the  bone-mill.  We 
have  used  fifteen  wagon-loads  of  piths  in  a  season  with 
great  advantage. 

The  best  way  of  applying  the  bone-dust  and  horn-sha- 
vings and  horn-piths,  that  we  have  tried,  is  to  keep  them 
dry  till  a  short  time  before  they  are  wanted — then  to  mix 
them,  in  the  proportion  of  a  bushel  to  a  load,  with  un- 
fermented  yard  or  stable  dung,  to  cart  to  the  field,  spread 
broadcast,  and  immediately  cover  the  whole  with  the 
plough.  The  action  of  the  dung  brings  on  a  decompo- 
sition of  the  animal  matter,  without  previous  preparation, 
and  its  benefits  are  imparted  to  the  coming  crop.  We 
estimate  fifteen  loads  of  manure,  thus  charged  with  bone 
or  horn,  equal  to  twenty-five  loads  without  it. 

3.  Poudrette  is  the  contents  of  privies,  dried,  and  ren- 
dered as  inodorous  and  inoffensive,  by  chemical  process, 
as  the  common  earths.  This  is  another  species  of  con- 
centrated manure  nearly  as  powerful  as  bone-dust  ;  more 
operative  upon  a  first  crop,  but  less  durable  in  its  effects. 
It  is  the  most  efficient,  in  its  immediate  effects,  of  any 
manure  we  have  tried.  It  is  applied  at  the  rate  of  40 
bushels  or  less  to  the  acre,  upon  all  arable  crops,  to  be 
sown  broadcast,  superficially  covered,  or  placed  in  the 
hill  or  drill  of  hoed  crops.  It  has  long  been  used  about 
Paris,  has  become  an  article  of  commerce,  and.  is  trans- 
ported to  every  part  of  the  interior.  Manufactories  of 
poudrette  have  been  established  in  the  vicinity  of  New- 
York,  and  the  demand  for  the  article  increases  with  the 
supply.  Like  manufactories  will,  no  doubt,  ere  long  be 
established  near  all  our  large  cities  ;  and  thus,  what  would 
be  otherwise  a  nuisance,  and  the  indirect  cause  of  disease 
and  death,  will  be  converted  into  vegetable  food,  and  be- 
come a  source  of  comfort  and  of  wealth.  Let  not  the 
sensitive  start  at  this  suggestion — the  choicest  delicacies 
of  the  table  come  from  a  nauseous  mass  of  animal  and 
vegetable  putrefaction  ! 

4.  Urette  is  animal  urine,  absorbed  and  rendered  dry 
by  mixture  with  calcareous  earth.     It  possesses  the  like 


ANIMAL  AND  VEGETABLE   MANURES.  73 

fertilizing  virtues  as  poudrette,  and  is  applied  in  a  similar 
way,  and  with  very  similar  effect. 

5.  Woollen  rags^  and  the  flocks  and  sweepings  of  wool- 
len-factories, constitute  a  highly-concentrated  manure,  and 
are  procured  in  considerable  quantities  at  the  woollen-mills. 

6.  Fish  are  converted  into  a  valuable  manure,  and  are 
a  main  dependance  of  fertihty  on  some  parts  of  Long 
Island,  and  other  districts  near  the  margin  of  the  sea. 
These  are  most  economically  used  in  the  form  of  a  com- 
post— the  earth  with  which  they  are  blended  absorbing 
the  volatile  parts,  and  permitting  a  more  equal  distribu- 
tion of  the  fertilizing  matters  upon  the  soil. 

7.  Sea-weed^  or  sea-drift,  which  is  so  often  thrown 
upon  the  beach  in  immense  quantities  during  a  storm,  is 
beneficially  employed  as  a  manure,  not  only  on  account 
of  its  vegetable,  but  of  its  saHne  properties.  It  is  em- 
ployed in  composts,  in  litter  for  cattle-yards,  or  is  ploughed 
in  in  a  green  state. 

8.  Peat  earth,  or  swamp  muck,  is  vegetable  food,  in 
an  insoluble  state,  and  requires  only  such  a  chemical 
change  as  shall  render  it  soluble,  to  convert  it  into  an  ac- 
tive manure.  This  change  may  be  effected  in  the  cattle- 
yard,  in  the  compost-heap,  or  by  admixture  with  alkaline 
substances,  as  lime,  ashes,  &c. 

This  earth  is  generaly  insoluble  in  the  places  where  it  is 
deposited,  especially  when  saturated  with  water.  It  some- 
times is  rendered  soluble  by  thorough  draining,  and  by 
the  admixture  of  sand  or  loam,  and  always  by  being 
brought  in  contact  with  fermenting  animal  or  vegetable 
matters. 

9.  Peat  ashes  are  valuable  as  a  top  dressing  for  grain 
or  grass,  and  particularly  for  young  clovers.  They  how- 
ever differ  much  in  their  fertilizing  properties,  according 
to  the  proportion  of  sulphate  of  lime  and  other  salts  which 
they  contain.  The  peat  or  bogs  should  be  burnt  in  stacks 
or  piles,  the  fire  being  kindled  in  the  centre,  where  dry 
combustibles  should  be  placed  for  the  purpose  ;  and 
when  the  fire  has  got  firm  hold  of  the  peat  earth  or  bogs, 
It  should  be  prevented  from  breaking  out,  by  the  occasional 
addition  of  fresh  turf  or  bogs  to  the  outside.     The  more 

7  XV. 


74  IMPROVEMENT   OF  THE    SOIL  BY 

the  air  can  be  kept  out,  and  the  smoke  kept  in,  the  more 
abundant  and  fertilizing  will  be  the  ashes. 

10.  Wood  ashes  are  beneficial  to  most  soils,  on  account 
of  the  potash  and  other  salts  which  they  afford.  Leached 
ashes  are  in  many  cases  beneficial,  particularly  within  the 
influence  of  the  marine  atmosphere  ;  and  it  has  been 
show^n  by  a  writer  in  the  Cultivator,  that  their  unvarying 
efficacy  upon  the  borders  of  the  sea,  is  owing  principally 
to  their  combining  these  with  the  muriate  of  soda,  or 
common  salt.  An  admixture  of  a  small  portion  of  salt, 
or  salt  water,  with  leached  ashes,  in  the  interior,  gave  to 
them  highly-enriching  qualities  ;  whereas,  applied  without 
the  salt,  they  imparted  little  or  no  benefit.  On  many 
lands  in  the  interior,  however,  the  application  of  leached 
ashes  has  induced  an  increase  of  fertility. 

In  short,  there  is  no  animal  or  vegetable  matter,  upon 
the  farm  or  elsewhere,  but  is  convertible  into  farm-crops, 
when  properly  managed. 

As  the  grain,  roots,  and  forage  destined  to  feed  the 
family  and  the  farm-stock,  require  the  best  care  of  the 
husbandman,  to  prevent  waste  and  injury,  so  does  the 
manure  which  is  destined  to  feed  his  crops.  Fermenta- 
tion, if  suffered  to  exhaust  its  powers  upon  yard-dung, 
materially  lessens  its  value  ;  the  wind  and  the  sun  dissi- 
pate its  virtues,  and  rains  leach  it  and  waste  its  fertilizing 
powers.  The  same  care  given  to  the  food  of  vegetables', 
which  should  be  given  to  the  food  of  animals,  will  be 
richly  recompensed  in  the  increased  product  of  the  har- 
vest. 

If  we  contrast  the  common  with  the  improved  practice, 
in  regard  to  the  management  of  dung,  we  shall  readily 
see,  that  the  difference,  in  enriching  the  soil,  is  incalcula- 
bly great — enough  to  induce  poverty  in  one  case,  and  to 
enrich  the  proprietor  in  the  other.  Even  the  best  class 
of  our  farmers,  who  are  deemed  judicious  managers,  sel- 
dom avail  themselves  of  half  the  resources  of  fertility 
w^hich  their  farms  or  neighborhoods  afford — not  half  that  are 
put  in  successful  requisition  by  the  farmers  of  Great  Brit- 
ain and  Flanders.  Besides,  what  manure  they  do  make, 
is  badly  husbanded  :  they  suffer  the  gaseous  portions  to 


ANIMAL  AND  VEGETABLE  MANURES.  75 

waste  in  the  air,  instead  of  being  absorbed  by,  and  enrich- 
ing the  soil ;  and  the  hquids  to  course  down  hill  to  the 
highway  or  some  neighboring  brook.  But  what  shall  we 
say  of  the  mass  of  our  farmers  ?  We  have  travelled  hun- 
dreds of  miles  to  the  west,  and  seen  great  quantities  of 
manure,  in  the  yards  and  about  the  barns,  often  the  ac- 
cumulation of  years,  seemingly  considered  by  the  owners 
rather  as  an  encumbrance,  or  a  nuisance,  than  as  a  source 
of  fertility  and  wealth. 

In  the  new  system  of  husbandry,  the  farmer's  profits 
are  in  a  measure  graduated  by  the  quantity  of  manure  he 
is  enabled  to  produce  from  his  farm.  In  the  fourth  vol- 
ume of  the  Cultivator,  estimates  are  given,  from  high  au- 
thorities, of  the  amount  produced  upon  farms  in  Great 
Britain.  Doctor  Coventry,  Agricultural  Professor  in  the 
Edinburgh  University,  gives  four  tons  of  manure  to  each 
acre  of  straw  manufactured  by  farm-stock.  A  Berwick- 
shire farmer,  quoted  by  Sir  John  Sinclair,  obtained  four 
cart-loads,  of  30  to  35  cubic  feet  each,  from  every  ox 
wintered  upon  straw  and  turnips.  Meadow  land  is  stated 
to  produce  from  four  to  six  tons  of  manure  to  the  acre  ; 
and  the  available  sources  of  fertility  upon  a  farm,  if  the 
products  are  consumed  by  the  stock  on  the  farm,  are  esti- 
mated to  be  sufficient  to  give  a  full  supply  of  manure  once 
in  every  course  of  the  four-year  system  of  husbandry. 
Arthur  Young,  with  six  horses,  four  cows,  nine  hogs,  and 
suitable  litter,  made  118  loads  of  dung,  36  bushels  each, 
in  a  winter.  Cattle  fed  with  turnips  are  computed  to 
make  double  the  manure  that  those  do  which  are  fed  upon 
dry  fodder  alone  ;  and  an  acre  of  turnips,  with  an  adequate 
quantity  of  straw,  has  produced  sixteen  cart-loads  of  dung. 
It  will  be  readily  perceived,  that  by  this  mode  of  man- 
agement, ample  means  may  be  provided  for  keeping  up 
the  fertility  of  the  soil,  when  put  under  the  four-shift 
system  of  husbandry. 

What  now  is  the  common  quantity  of  manure,  under  the 
old  system  ?  Taking  our  State,  or  our  country  at  large, 
we  are  confident  the  average  quantity  which  is  judiciously 
applied,  will  not  amount  to  one  load  an  acre,  and  w^e  are 
doubtful  if  it  will  amount  to  half  a  load.     Can  it  be  won- 


76  IMPROVEMENT   OF  THE    SOIL  BY 

dered,  then,  that  under  such  reckless  management,  of 
returning  to  the  soil  only  a  quarter,  or  an  eighth,  of 
what  we  take  from  it,  of  the  food  of  plants,  our  lands 
should  continue  to  grow  poor,  till  they  no  longer  yield  a 
reward  to  culture  ?  The  cultivated  lands  in  New  York 
are  estimated  at  eight  millions  of  acres.  On  the  suppo- 
sition that  one  half  of  these  are  appropriated  to  tillage 
and  meadow — and  this  is  a  low  estimate — we  might  pro- 
duce, and  apply  annually,  under  the  new  system  of  hus- 
bandry— and  we  ought  to  do  so — sixteen  million  tons  of 
manure,  worth,  to  the  country,  at  a  low  computation,  six- 
teen millions  of  dollars  ; — whereas,  we  now  produce,  un- 
der the  old  system,  certainly  not  more  than  four  millions 
of  tons — thereby  suffering  an  annual  loss,  independent  of 
the  certain  and  constant  diminution  in  the  product  and 
value  of  our  lands,  of  twelve  miUions  of  dollars,  in  the 
single  item  of  manures  !  This  is  not  a  visionary  specula- 
tion— it  is  sober  truth — and  we  ask  any  intelligent  man, 
to  show,  from  facts,  a  less  favorable  conclusion. 

But,  to  relieve  this  sombre  picture,  so  discreditable  to 
American  husbandry,  we  are  happy  to  have  it  in  our  pow- 
er to  cite  some  illustrious  exceptions  to  the  conclusions 
we  have  drawn  ;  which  go  to  prove  both  our  general  neg- 
lect in  this  branch  of  rural  economy,  and  the  vast  benefits 
which  it  is  capable  of  dispensing  when  duly  attended  to. 
Among  other  notable  examples  which  might  be  mentioned, 
we  state,  on  the  authority  of  the  Essex  Committee  on 
Manures,  that  in  Plymouth  county,  when  a  premium  was 
to  be  given  to  the  man  who  made  the  greatest  number  of 
loads  of  manure  on  his  farm,  the  prize  was  awarded  to  a 
farmer  who  made  798  loads — the  lowest  competitor  claim- 
ing for  350.  William  Clark,  Jr.,  of  Northampton,  with 
an  average  stock  of  8  oxen  and  cows,  3  horses,  and  8 
hogs,  made  in  a  year  920  loads.  A  friend  of  the  writer 
on  Staten  Island,  who  has  a  stock  of  some  20  or  30  cat- 
tle, assured  us  that  he  could  or  did  make,  from  his  cattle, 
peat  earth,  peat  ashes,  and  sea-weed,  enough  manure  to 
thoroughly  dung  more  than  one  hundred  acres  of  his  farm 
annually. 

The  cases  we  have  cited  will  serve  to  show,  that  a 


ANIMAL  AND  VEGETABLE  MANURES.        77 

vast  improvement  may  be  made  in  this  branch  of  farm 
economy. 

We  will  merely  remark  here,  in  regard  to  the  applica- 
tion of  manures,  that  if  used  in  an  unfermented  state,  they 
should  be  buried  with  the  plough,  at  least  so  deep  as  to 
remain  saturated  with  moisture,  a  material  agent  of  de- 
composition, and  applied  to  a  hoed,  or  autumn-ripening 
crop.  If  used  in  a  rotted  state,  they  may  be  blended 
with  the  surface,  and  apphed  to  a  summer-ripening  crop. 
We  will  give  our  reasons  for  this  practice.  Manure  fer- 
tihzes  in  two  ways — by  the  gaseous  matters  which  are 
evolved  in  fermentation,  and  which  rise  ;  and  which,  be- 
sides constituting  vegetable  food,  operate  in  the  soil,  like 
yest  in  dough,  rendering  it  porous,  and  permeable  to  heat, 
air,  and  moisture  ;  and  by  liquid  matters,  which  sink.  If 
used  before  it  has  parted  with  its  gases,  manure  should 
be  buried,  that  the  incumbent  soil  may  imbibe  the  gaseous 
elements.  If  the  manure  has  been  rotted,  it  has  parted 
with  its  gaseous  matters,  and  all  its  remaining  fertilizing 
properties  are  liable  to  be  carried  down  by  the  rains — 
hence  this  may  be  deposited  near  the  surface.  Again, 
fresh  manures,  even  in  a  liquid  form,*  induce  a  rank 
growth  of  herbage  ;  but  they  do  not  produce  good  plump 
seed.  Hence,  if  applied  to  common  small  grains,  they 
cause  a  great  growth  of  straw  at  the  expense  of  the  grain; 
fermentation  being  most  rapid  at  mid-summer,  when  the 
seed,  and  not  the  straw,  requires  the  food.  But  the  au- 
tumn-ripening crops,  as  corn,  &c.,  are  in  that  state,  at 
mid-summer,  which  requires  strong  food  to  perfect  their 
stalks  and  leaves  ;  and  the  fermentation  of  the  manure 
has  subsided  before  the  grain  matures  in  autumn.  Fos- 
sil manures,  as  hme,  marl,  and  gypsum,  are  applied  upon 
the  surface,  or  buried  superficially,  because  their  disposi- 
tion is  to  settle  down,  and  they  give  off  no  gaseous  food. 

*  Colonel  de  Courteur  (see  Farmers'  Magazine)  tried  stable  manure 
and  liquid  manure,  the  latter  diluted,  upon  his  wheat.  The  grain 
tillered  much,  or  gave  a  great  growth  of  straw  and  grass  ;  but  the 
product  in  grain  was  diminished.  When  the  liquid  manure  was  ap- 
plied a  second  time,  by  being  poured  upon  the  growing  wheat,  the 
straw  was  very  rank  ;  the  plants  produced  only  a  few  ears  of  wheat, 
and  those  were  very  defective  in  grain. 


78  IMPROVEMENT   OF   THE   SOIL 

CHAPTER  X. 

IMPROVEMENT  OF  THE  SOIL  BY  MINERAL  MANURES. 

Although  animal  and  vegetable  matters  are  consider- 
ed the  true  food  of  plants,  as  they  are  of  animals,  yet  the 
plant,  like  the  animal,  is  benefited  by  certain  mineral  and 
saline  substances,  which  seem  necessary  to  both,  as  stim- 
uli or  condiments,  and  which  act  either  upon  the  food,  in 
fitting  it  for  use,  upon  the  organs  of  digestion  or  nutrition, 
or  become  essential  in  giving  form,  strength,  and  firmness 
to  the  animal  and  vegetable  structure.  Thus  the  bones, 
of  animals  are  formed  from  the  lime  and  phosphorus 
which  are  taken  in  with  the  food.  Without  lime,  the 
eggs  of  fowls  would  be  without  a  shell.  All  the  earths 
enter  more  or  less  into  the  animal  and  vegetable  structures, 
and  into  the  seeds  of  the  latter.  Lime  is  found  in  the 
wheat,  gypsum  in  the  clover,  sulphur  in  the  turnip,  silex 
in  the  stalks  of  Indian  corn,  and  most  of  the  cereal  gras- 
ses. Mineral  substances  are  also  beneficially  employed 
in  improving  the  texture  of  the  soil,  and  in  fitting  it  to 
promote  the  growth  of  plants. 

The  most  important  of  the  mineral  applications  is  lime. 
Lime  benefits  in  two  ways  ;  first,  in  its  caustic  state, 
deprived  of  its  carbonic  acid  by  fire,  it  dissolves  vegeta- 
ble fibre,  and  converts  it  into  the  food  of  plants  ;  and  at 
the  same  time,  by  forming  new  chemical  compounds  with 
matters  that  are  soluble,  it  prolongs  the  nutritive  action 
of  soft  vegetable  and  animal  substances  beyond  the  time 
in  which  they  would  have  acted,  if  they  had  not  entered 
into  a  combination  with  it.  Hence,  caustic,  or  quick- 
lime, should  not  be  applied  with  common  dung,  but  to 
soils  abounding  in  peaty,  fibrous,  and  other  insoluble,  inert 
vegetable  matters.  And  secondly,  in  its  mild  state,  or 
as  a  carbonate,  it  improves  the  mechanical  texture  of 
sands  and  clays  ;  rendering  the  first  more  compact  and 
more  retentive  of  manure  and  moisture,  and  the  latter 


BY  MINERAL  MANURES.  79 

more  porous,  and  more  permeable  to  the  dews,  to  air,  and 
to  heat.  Upon  all  soils  which  do  not  contain  it  natural- 
ly, mild  lime  may  be  applied  with  certain  ulterior  benefit. 

Lime,  §ays  Professor  Low,  may  be  applied  to  land  in 
different  ways,  and  at  different  periods. 

"1.  It  may  be  laid  on  the  surface  of  land  which  is  in 
grass,  and  remain  there  until  the  land  is  ploughed  up  for 
tillage,  even  though  this  should  be  several  years  after- 
wards. The  lime,  in  this  case,  quickly  sinks  into  the 
soil,  and,  acting  upon  it,  prepares  it  for  crops  when  it  is 
again  tilled. 

"2.  It  may  be  spread  upon  the  ground,  and  buried 
even  by  the  plough,  just  after  a  crop  of  any  kind  has  been 
reaped.  In  this  case  it  prepares  the  soil  for  succeeding 
crops. 

"3.  It  maybe  spread  upon  the  surface  even  where 
plants  are  growing.  This  practice,  however,  though  some- 
times convenient,  is  very  rarely  to  be  imitated. 

"4.  It  maybe,  and  is  most  frequently,  applied  du- 
ring the  season  in  which  the  land  is  in  fallow,  or  in  j^rep- 
aration  for  what  are  termed  fallow  crops. 

"5.  It  may  be  mixed  with  earthy  matter,  particularly 
with  that  containing  vegetable  remains,  [the  ligneous, 
woody  and  peaty  ;]  in  this  case  it  forms  a  compost.'^ — 
Lowh  Elements^  &c. 

Quicklime  adds  nothing  to  the  elements  of  fertihty  ;  it 
merely  digests  these  elements,  or  renders  them  soluble. 
Hence  its  tendency  is  to  exhaust  these  elements  in  the 
soil,  and  to  induce  ultimate  sterihty,  unless  organic  mat- 
ters are  returned  to  it.  Lime  will  produce  no  benefit  to 
soils  in  which  there  are  no  organic  matters. 

The  quantity  of  lime  to  be  applied  to  the  acre,  will 
depend  upon  the  quality  of  the  soil  ;  the  poorer  the  soil, 
the  less  should  be  the  application.  In  Britain,  from  100 
to  300  bushels  are  applied.  In  the  United  States,  from 
50  to  120  bushels  ;  and  the  dressings  may  be  repeated, 
according  to  circumstances,  in  every  four  to  ten  years. 
In  France,  applications  of  from  three  to  ten  bushels  are 
made  annually,  with  the  best  effect.  Lime  is  inoperative 
upon  all  soils  containing  an  excess  of  water.      It  eradi- 


80  IMPROVEMENT    OF  THE    SOIL 

cates  sorrelj  corrects  the  acidity  of  soils,  neutralizes  the 
oxydes  of  iron,  tends  to  prevent  rust  in  the  small  grains, 
and  to  give  to  wheat  a  fine,  clean  straw  and  berry. 
.  Quicklime,  in  its  ultimate,  and  carbonate  of  hme,  in 
its  immediate  effects,  are  beneficial,  as  we  have  stated,  in 
all  soils  in  which  it  is  deficient.  Two  per  cent,  of  car- 
bonate of  lime,  in  the  tillage  stratum  of  a  soil,  is  deemed 
sufficient,  by  Mr.  Ruffin,  for  all  tillage  crops;  but  it  should 
be  borne  in  mind,  that  this  earth,  more  than  any  other,  is 
exhausted  by  cropping  ;  and  that  when  it  is  supplied  arti- 
ficially, it  will  require  to  be  repeated  at  intervals  of  four 
to  eight  years. 

The  following  rules  for  the  application  of  quicklime 
are  given  in  British  husbandry,  and  w^ill  be  found  gener- 
ally applicable  to  our  practice. 

^'1.  Before  application  of  lime,  the  land  should  be 
thoroughly  drained  and  laid  dry. 

"2.  It  may  be  carried  on  when  the  teams  are  most  at 
leisure  ;  but  summer  is  the  best  season  ;  and  it  never 
should  be  laid  upon  the  land  except  in  dry  weather. 

''3.  It  should  be  laid  on  while  in  a  powdery  state,  and 
kept  as  near  the  surface  as  possible,  as  then  best  adapted 
to  mix  intimately  with  the  soil. 

*'  4.  It  may  be  applied  either  quick  or  effete  ;  but  if 
in  the  former  state  it  will  have  more  effect  in  cleansing 
the  land,  and  a  less  quantity  will  serve  the  immediate  pur- 
pose. It  should  however  be  carted  upon  the  land  as  soon 
as  possible,  and  spread  directly  before  the  plough,  let- 
ting that  follow  so  quickly,  as  that  the  body  of  the  lime 
shall  be  slaked  in  the  soil  ;  and  it  must  be  cautiously  ap- 
plied to  light  soils. 

"5.  As  it  has  a  tendency  to  sink  into  the  ground,  and 
it  is  important  to  preserve  it  near  the  surface,  it  should 
be  ploughed  with  a  shallow  furrow. 

"6.  When  found,  after  a  few  years,  in  lumps,  and 
much  below  the  surface  of  the  land,  it  should  be  ploughed 
up  and  repeatedly  harrowed,  so  as  to  insure  its  entire 
mixture. 

"  7.  Clays  and  strong  loams  require  a  full  dose  ;  but 
for  sands  and  other  light  soils,  a  much  less  quantity  of 


BY  MINERAL  MANURES.  81 

lime  will  serve,  each  in  proportion  to  the  strength  of  the 
lime  and  the  land. 

"8.  If  the  land  be  not  supplied  with  the  same  quantity 
of  putrescent  manure  that  is  usually  laid  upon  other  soils, 
the  crops  will  suffer  ;  and  if  it  be  not  then  laid  down  to 
grass  for  a  long  series  of  years,  it  will  be  worn  out  and 
exhausted." 

We  add  the  following  from  Professor  Low  : — 

"  Lime  may  be  laid  on  the  surface  of  land  when  it  is 
in  grass,  and  remain  there  till  the  land  is  ploughed  up  for 
tillage,  even  though  this  should  be  several  years  afterwards. 
The  lime,  in  this  case,  quickly  sinks  into  the  soil,  and, 
acting  upon  it,  prepares  it  for  crops  when  it  is  again 
tilled." 

"  It  may  be  spread  upon  the  surface  even  when  plants 
are  growing.      This  is,  however,  rarely  to  be  imitated." 

Lime  is  most  extensively  used  in  East  Pennsylvania, 
of  any  part  of  the  United  States.  The  writer  of  this 
essay  addressed  a  letter  to  Dr.  Darlington,  of  Chester 
county,  propounding  certain  queries  as  to  the  mode  of 
applying  hme,  quantity  apphed,  &c.  in  his  neighborhood ; 
to  which  the  Doctor  kindly  returned  the  subjoined  answer, 
which  will  probably  afford  the  best  guide  to  the  Ameri- 
can farmer,  in  the  application  of  this  mineral,  that  can  be 
found. 

Dear  Sir, — I  proceed,  with  great  pleasure,  to  furnish 
you  with  such  facts  and  remarks  as  my  opportunities  for 
observation  have  enabled  me  to  offer.  With  a  view  to 
render  the  answers  more  explicit  and  satisfactory,  I  will 
annex  them,  seriatim,  to  your  several  inquiries. 

Query  1.  "  Upon  ichat  lands  does  lime  operate  most 
beneficially, — 15^  In  regard  to  geological  formation, — 
as  primitive,  transition,  secondary,  and  alluvial  ?  2d. 
In  reference  to  the  soil, — as  sand,  clay,  lime,  and  vege- 
table matter  ?  3(Z.  .^5  indicated  by  natural  growth  of 
timber  and  plants  V 

Answer,  My  residence  has  always  been  in  a  primitive 
region,  and  my  observations  very  much  limited  to  agri- 
cultural processes  in  soils  upon  that  formation.      The  pre- 


83  IMPROVEMENT    OF   THE    SOIL 

vailing  rock  here  is  gneiss,  with  occasional  beds,  or 
veins,  of  hornblende,  greenstone,  and  sienite.  About 
five  miles  to  the  north  of  us  is  the  great  valley  of  transi- 
tion limestone,  stretching  from  northeast  to  southwest, 
and  immediately  on  the  northern  side  of  this  valley,  run- 
ning parallel  with  it,  is  a  broken  ridge  of  hills,  formed  of 
mica  slate, — with  beds  of  serpentine  rock  and  hornblende, 
on  the  side  next  to  gneiss  rock,  on  the  southeast. 

Over  the  gneiss  rock,  and  among  the  hornblende,  the 
soil  is  generally  a  still  loam  ;  and  I  think  the  best  effects 
are  perceptible  from  a  given  quantity  of  lime.  On  the 
soil  overlaying  the  schistose  rock,  the  good  effects  of 
lime  are  sufficiently  obvious,  under  the  management  of 
skilful  farmers  ;  but  the  benefits  seem  to  be  less  perma- 
nent. 

On  the  serpentine  rock  the  soil  is  extremely  sterile  ; 
and  neither  lime  nor  barn-yard  manure  can  be  used  with 
much  advantage.  In  the  limestone  soil  of  the  great  val- 
ley, where  one  would  suppose  it  was  already  redundant, 
lime  is  used  with  advantage  ;  and  much  heavier  dressings 
are  put  on,  than  in  the  adjacent  districts.  I  cannot  fur- 
nish the  rationale  of  this  practice,  but  I  believe  the  fact 
is  established,  that  more  lime  is  required  to  produce  the 
same  beneficial  effect  on  soils  resting  on  limestone  rock, 
than  upon  those  overlaying  gneiss,  and  perhaps  some  other 
primitive  rocks. 

I  have  had  no  opportunity  to  witness  the  effect  of  lime 
upon  secondary^  and  strictly  alluvial,  formations  ;  but 
the  circumstances  have  led  me  to  suspect,  that  the  same 
quantity  of  lime  would  not  be  so  signally  beneficial  in 
secondary,  as  it  is  in  certain  primitive  formations. 

Lime  undoubtedly  has  a  good  effect  in  soils  which  are 
sandy,  even  where  sand  predominates  ;  but  I  beheve  its 
meliorating  properties  are  most  conspicuous  in  a  clay 
soil, — or  rather  in  a  stiff  loam.  A  good  proportion  of 
decomposed  vegetable  matter  adds  greatly  to  the  benefi- 
cial effects  of  lime  ;  and  hence  our  farmers  are  desirous 
to  mingle  as  much  barn-yard  manure  as  possible  with  their 
lime  dressings,^and  to  get  their  fields  into  what  is  called 
a  good  sod,  or  turf, — full  of  grass  roots.      Then  a  dres- 


BY  MINERAL   MANURES.  83 

sing  of  lime  has  an  admirable  effect.*  The  soils  indica- 
ted by  a  natm*al  growth  of  black  oak,  [quercus  tinctoria,} 
walnut,  {juglans  nigra,)  and  poplar,  {liriodendron,) — • 
and  those  in  which  such  grasses  as  the  poas  and  festucas 
best  flourish,  are  generally  most  signally  benefited  by  the 
use  of  lime.  In  short,  I  may  observe,  that  lime  has  been 
found  more  or  less  beneficial  in  every  description  of  soil 
in  this  district. 

It  is  most  so  on  hilly  or  rolling  lands,  where  clay  pre- 
dominates,— less  permanently  so  among  the  mica  slate, — 
and  least  of  all  on  the  magnesian  rocks.  The  soil  on 
these  last  is  rarely  w^orth  cultivating. 

Query  2.  "  What  quantity  of  lime  is  applied  to  the 
acre  J  upon  different  soils  j  at  a  single  dressing ,  and  during 
a  period  of  years  ?" 

Answer.  The  quantity  of  lime,  per  acre,  which  can 
be  used  advantageously,  varies  with  the  condition  and 
original  character  of  the  soil.  Highly-improved  land  will 
bear  a  heavier  dressing  than  poor  land.  On  a  soil  of 
medium  condition  the  usual  dressing  is  40  to  50  bushels 
per  acre.  A  deep,  rich  soil,  or  limestone  land  in  the 
great  valley,  will  receive  70  to  80  (and  I  am  told  even 
100)  bushels  to  the  acre  with  advantage.  On  very  poor 
land,  20  to  30  bushels  per  acre  is  deemed  most  advanta- 
geous to  commence  with.  It  is  usually  repeated  every 
five  or  six  years — i.  e.,  every  time  the  field  comes  in  turn 
to  be  broken  up  with  the  plough  ;  and  as  the  land  improves 
the  quantity  of  lime  is  increased.  The  prevailing  prac- 
tice here  is,  to  plough  down  the  sod,  or  ley,  in  the  fall 
Or  early  in  the  spring — harrow  it  once — and  then  spread 
the  lime  (previously  slaked  to  a  powder)  preparatory  to 
planting  the  field  with  Indian  corn.  Every  field,  in  rota- 
tion, receives  this  kind  of  dressing  ;  and  as  our  farms  are 

*  The  yard  manure  is  not  usually  mingled  with  the  lime,  when  the 
latter  is  first  applied.  The  practice  is,  to  lime  the  Indian  corn  ground, 
prior  to  planting  that  grain,  on  the  inverted  sod, — and,  the  ensuing 
spring,  to  manure  the  same  field  for  a  barley  crop, — or,  to  reserve  the 
manure  until  the  succeeding  autumn,  and  apply  it  to  the  wheat  crop. 
It  is  not  well  settled  which  of  these  is  the  better  practice.  Each  has 
its  advocates  ;  but  it  is  most  usual  to  reserve  the  manure  for  the 
wheat. 


84  IMPROVEMENT   OF  THE   SOIL 

mostly  divided  into  about  half  a  dozen  fields,  the  dressing 
of  course  comes  once  in  six  years,  more  or  less,  accord- 
ing to  the  number  of  the  fields.  Some  enterprising  farm- 
ers however  give  their  fields  an  intermediate  dressing,  on 
the  sod,  after  they  come  into  grass,  which  I  consider  an 
excellent  practice, — tending  rapidly  to  improve  the  condi- 
tion of  the  land. 

Query  3.  "  /?  it  applied  in  a  caustic  or  in  an  effete 
state  V 

Answer.  It  is  usually  obtained  in  a  caustic  state  from 
the  kiln, — deposited  in  heaps  in  the  field  where  it  is  to 
be  spread,  and  water,  sufiicient  to  slake  it  to  a  powder, 
is  then  tlirown  upon  it.  As  soon  as  slaked  it  is  loaded 
into  carts,  and  men  with  shovels  distribute  it  as  equally 
as  possible  over  the  ground.  It  is  generally  considered 
best  to  put  it  on  the  ground  while  it  is  fresh,  or  warm,  as 
the  phrase  is  ;  and  it  is  certainly  easier  to  spread  it  equally 
when  in  a  light,  pulverized  state,  than  after  it  gets  much 
wet  with  rains.  I  am  inclined  to  think,  too,  it  is  better 
for  the  land  when  applied  fresh  from  the  kiln. 

Query  4.  '-'•  To  what  crops  is  it  most  advantageously 
applied,  and  at  what  season  V 

Answer.  It  is  usually  applied,  as  already  intimated, 
to  the  crop  of  Indian  corn,  in  the  spring  of  the  year — 
say  the  month  of  A  pril.  Occasionally  it  is  applied  prepar- 
atory to  sowing  wheat  in  autumn.  When  used  as  a  top 
dressing,  on  the  sod,  it  is  generally  applied  in  the  fall — 
say  November.  The  prevailing  impression  is,  that  it  is 
most  advantageously  applied  to  the  Indian  corn  crop  ; 
and  hence  the  general  practice.  But  the  truth  is,  it  is 
highly  advantageous  at  any,  and  at  all  seasons  ;  and  our 
shrewd  old  farmers  have  a  saying — "  Get  your  lime  on 
for  your  corn,  if  you  can, — but  be  sure  to  get  it  on  the 
land  some  time  in  the  year.'''' 

Query  5.  "  How  is  it  incorporated  with  the  soil — by 
the  plough  or  the  harrow  ?  and  is  it  applied  in  any  case 
as  a  top  dressing  to  grass  and  to  grains,  and  with  what 
effect  V 

Answer.  As  already  stated,  after  the  sod  is  ploughed 
down  for  Indian  corn,  it  is  usually  harrowed  once  to 


BY  MINERAL  MANURES.  85 

render  the  surface  more  uniform.  The  lime  is  spread 
as  equally  as  possible  over  the  field,  and  then  the  ground; 
is  well  harrowed  in  different  directions,  in  order  to  in- 
corporate the  lime  with  the  soil.  Soon  afterwards  the 
field  is  marked  out  and  planted  with  corn.  The  plough 
is  rarely  if  ever  used  for  the  purpose  alluded  to.  I  have 
mentioned  above,  that  lime  is  occasionally  used  as  a  top 
dressing  for  grass.  It  appears  to  be  particularly  beneficial 
to  that  crop  ;  and  answers  extremely  well  when  applied 
in  that  manner.  The  practice  of  applying  it  to  Indian 
corn  as  above  related,  is,  however,  chiefly  followed  ;  and 
the  application  of  a  dressing  to  each  field,  in  rotation, 
causes  as  much  labor  and  expense  every  year,  as  our 
farmers  generally  are  willing  to  incur  Lime  has  rarely 
been  used  as  a  top  dressing  to  grain  crops  within  my 
knowledge. 

Query  6.  ''  What  is  the  ordinary  cost  per  acre  of 
liming,  and  the  relative  profits,  in  increased  products  of 
a  period  of  years  V 

Answer.  Quicklime,  at  the  kilns,  usually  costs  twelve 
and  a  half  cents  a  bushel.  The  farmers  generally  haul 
it  with  their  own  teams  ;  and  the  additional  expense  de- 
pends, of  course,  materially  upon  the  distance.  It  is  fre- 
quently hauled  by  them  a  distance  of  eight,  ten,  and  even 
twelve  miles.  The  average,  perhaps,  is  about  five  or 
six  miles.  It  is  delivered  to  me  by  the  lime-burners,  (a 
distance  of  near  six  miles,)  at  18  cents  a  bushel.  At 
the  rate  of  40  bushels  to  the  acre,  the  cost,  at  18  cents, 
would  be  $7,20  per  acre.  It  is  difficult  to  estimate,  with 
precision,  the  relative  profits  in  increased  products.  But 
I  can  safely  say,  from  my  own  experience,  on  a  small 
farm  of  middling  quality,  that  two  dressings  of  lime  at  the 
above  rate,  in  the  course  of  eight  or  nine  years,  have 
more  than  trebled  the  products  of  the  land  to  which  it 
was  applied,  both  in  grain  and  grass.  It  is  to  be  under- 
stood, however,  that  the  system  of  ploughing  only  so 
much  ground  as  could  be  well  manured  was  adopted  at 
the  same  time.  I  may  also  observe,  generally,  that  the 
farmers  of  this  district,  (who  are  shrewd  economists,)  are 
so  well  convinced  of  the  beneficial  effects  of  Hming,  that, 
8  XV. 


86  IMPROVEMENT   OF  THE    SOIL 

costly  as  its  application  seems  to  be,  they  are  unanimous 
in  sparing  no  effort  to  procure  it.  Lime  has  been  found 
peculiarly  favorable  to  the  growth  of  pasture,  when  the 
farm  is  otherwise  well  managed  ;  and  as  our  farmers  are 
mostly  in  the  practice  of  feeding  cattle,  they  resort  to 
liming  as  an  indispensable  auxiliary  to  successful  grazing. 

Query  7.  "  /s  lime  applied  with  yard  manures^  or 
earthy  composts,  and  with  what  results  ?" 

Answer.  I  have  already  intimated  that  vegetable  mat- 
ters, and  especially  yard  manures,  are  highly  important 
in  conjunction  with  lime.  Both  are  valuable  even  when 
used  separately ;  but  when  combined,  the  effect  is  most 
complete.  If  to  this  be  added  the  great  secret  of  good 
farming, — viz.,  to  plough  only  so  much  ground  as  can  be 
well  manured, — the  state  of  agriculture  may  be  considered 
nearly  perfect. 

Lime  is  in  some  instances  added  to  earthy  composts, 
preparatory  to  distribution  in  the  fields  ;  but  it  is  doubtful 
whether  the  extra  labor  of  this  method  is  compensated  by 
any  pecuhar  advantages.     It  is  not  generally  practised. 

Query  8.  ''Is  powdered  limestone  {carbonate  of  lime) 
applied  to  soils  ;  and,  if  so,  does  it  induce  fertility  other- 
icise  than  by  mechanically  ameliorating  their  texture  V 

Answer.  No  instance  of  powdered  limestone  being 
applied  to  soils  has  come  under  my  notice.  I  can,  there- 
fore, form  but  a  very  imperfect  opinion  of  its  utility.  If 
it  were  even  as  beneficial  as  quicklime,  (which  I  doubt,) 
I  apprehend  it  could  not  be  procured  and  apphed  with 
less  cost  and  labor. 

Query  9.  "On  what  soils,  if  any,  in  your  neighbor- 
hood, is  lime  found  to  be  inoperative  as  a  fertilizing  ap- 
plication ;  and  the  cause  of  its  failure  ?" 

Answer.  There  is  no  soil  in  this  district  deemed  worthy 
of  cultivation,  on  which  lime  is  wholly  inoperative  as  a 
fertilizer.  On  some  sterile,  slaty  ridges,  and  on  magne- 
sian  rocks,  it  has  indeed  but  a  slight  effect  ;  and  even 
the  benefits  of  barn-yard  manure  are  very  transient.  In 
low,  swampy  grounds,  also,  unless  they  are  previously 
well  drained,  the  labor  of  applying  hme  is  pretty  much 
thrown  away.      There  seems  to  be  something  in  the  con- 


BY  MINERAL  MANURES.  87 

stitution  of  magnesian  rocks  peculiarly  iinsuited  to  the 
growth  of  the  more  valuable  plants.  Indeed,  there  are 
patches  of  the  soil  perfectly  destitute  of  all  vegetation. 
Repeated  attempts  have  been  made  to  cultivate  the  bases 
of  our  serpentine  banks  ;  but  neither  lime  nor  manure 
will  enable  the  farmer  to  obtain  more  than  a  light  crop  of 
small  grain.  Neither  clover  nor  the  valuable  grasses  can 
be  induced  to  take  root  and  flourish  in  the  ungenial  soil. 
It  is,  therefore,  almost  universally  neglected. 

I  have  thus  endeavored  (in  rather  a  desultory  manner, 
I  confess)  to  answer  your  queries  according  to  my  best 
judgement.  If  what  I  have  furnished  shall  in  any  degree 
tend  to  make  the  subject  better  understood,  I  shall  be 
amply  gratified. 

With  great  respect,  I  have  the  honor  to  be,  your 
obedient  servant,  Wm.  Darlington. 

Jesse  Buel,  Esq.,  Cor.  Sec^y,  ^c. 

Lime  has  been  long  used  in  the  agriculture  of  Flanders 
and  the  Netherlands,  and  is,  according  to  M.  Puvis,  ap- 
plied at  intervals  of  ten  or  twelve  years,  at  the  rate  of 
about  45  bushels  to  the  acre.  It  is  also  applied  in  com- 
post, and  the  older  the  compost  the  better  it  is  considered  ; 
and  the  benefits  of  this  application  last  from  15  to  20 
years.  In  some  parts  of  France,  according  to  the  same 
authority,  it  is  given,  every  three  years,  at  each  renewal 
of  the  rotation,  at  the  rate  of  about  11  bushels  to  the 
acre,  in  a  compost,  with  seven  or  eight  parts  of  mould  to 
one  of  lime.  This  compost  is  used  upon  land  previous 
to  the  autumn  sowing,  with  an  equal  proportion  of  farm- 
yard dung.  M.  Puvis  recommends  this  practice  for  gen- 
eral adoption. 

After  all  that  has  been  said  and  written  upon  the  ap- 
plication of  lime  for  agricultural  purposes,  no  definite 
rules  can  be  laid  down  for  its  general  application.  Much 
depends  upon  the  quality  and  condition  of  the  soil.  In 
some  districts  quicklime  has  proved  of  vast  benefit  ; 
while  in  others  it  has  been  in  a  great  measure  inoperative. 
Every  farmer  should  experiment  with  it  first  upon  a  limited 
scale,  and  extend  its  use  as  he  finds  its  benefits  will  war- 


88  IMPROVEMENT   OF   THE   SOIL 

rant.  Effete  lime  and  marl  are  more  certain  in  their 
effects,  when  judiciously  employed.  They  seldom  fail 
to  benefit  any  soil  not  highly  charged  with  calcareous  earth. 

In  the  application  of  all  mineral  manures,  of  concen- 
trated animal  manures,  and  even  of  yard-dung,  upon  which 
fermentation  has  exhausted  its  powers,  one  rule  apphes, 
viz.,  that  they  should  be  blended,  as  intimately  as  is  prac- 
ticable, with  the  surface  of  the  soil,  in  preference  to  being 
buried  deep  with  the  plough.  The  tendency  of  all  of 
them  is  to  sink. 

Lime  is  not  only  an  alterative,  rendering  a  cohesive 
soil  more  porous,  and  a  porous  soil  more  compact,  but  it 
changes  and  neutralizes  many  matters  that  often  abound 
in  soils,  that  are  deleterious  and  hurtful  to  farm-crops  ; — 
as,  for  instance,  some  of  the  acids,  and  the  oxydes  of  iron 
and  other  salts.  In  this  way  it  destroys  sorrel,  and  often 
converts  a  barren  ferruginous  soil,  charged  with  the  oxydes 
of  iron,  into  one  of  fertihty.  The  prevailing  opinion  is, 
that  lime  soon  loses  its  caustic  quality,  however  fresh 
from  the  kiln,  when  it  is  either  spread  upon  the  surface 
of  a  field,  or  buried  in  the  soil  ;  and  that  its  principal 
benefits  to  agriculture  result  rather  from  its  use  as  a  car- 
bonate, than  from  its  caustic  properties. 

Gypsum,  or  plaster  of  Paris,  is  lime  combined  with 
sulphuric  acid.  Common  hmestone  is  called  carbonate 
of  lime,  from  the  union  of  carbonic  acid  with  the  base. 
Gypsum  is  called  sulphate  of  lime,  from  the  acid  which 
it  contains.  This  substance  exists  in  soils,  is  found  in 
plants,  and  is  consequently  contained  in  manures  ;  yet  it 
is  applied  to  certain  crops,  upon  dry,  sandy,  and  gravelly 
soils,  with  almost  certain  advantage — except  on  the  sea- 
board— and  the  poorer  the  soil  the  more  apparent  its 
benefit — probably  because  such  soils  contain  little  or  no 
gypsum,  and  have  received  little  or  no  manure.  Its 
mode  of  operation  is  yet  matter  of  dispute.  Sir  H.  Davy 
considers  it  a  necessary  element  in  some  kinds  of  plants  ; 
and  his  opinion  is  strengthened  by  the  facts,  that  its  ap- 
plication proves  beneficial  to  such  crops  as  afford  it  on 
analysis,  as  clover,  lucerne,  Indian  corn,  and  broad-leaved 
plants  generally  ;  that  it  is   seldom  of  direct  benefit  to 


BY  MINERAL   MANURES.  89 

narrow-leaved  crops,  as  wheat,  rye,  timothy,  &c.,  which 
do  not  yield  it  on  analysis  ;  and  that  it  produces  no  bene- 
ficial effect  upon  wet  or  heavy  clay  grounds. 

Judge  Peters,  of  Pennsylvania,  and  John  Taylor,  of 
Virginia,  who  multiplied  experiments  with  gypsum,  thought 
that  a  bushel  an  acre,  sown  broadcast  upon  grass  lands, 
was  a  sufficient  dressing.  We  have  found  two  bushels 
an  acre  to  be  beneficial  upon  meadows.  In  arable  hus- 
bandry, gypsum  is  either  sown  broadcast,  before  the  last 
ploughing  or  harrowing,  or  put  upon  the  plants  in  hilled 
or  drilled  crops. 

JMarl  is  another  mineral  substance  which  often  induces 
fertility.  It  is  composed  of  carbonate  of  lime,  com- 
bined with  sand  or  clay,  and  is  deemed  valuable  in  pro- 
portion to  the  quantity  of  hme  which  it  contains. 

Clay-marl  occurs  in  beds,  more  or  less  indurated  ; 
and  is  sometimes  so  hard  as  to  acquire  the  name  of  rock- 
marl.  These  marls  should  be  laid  upon  the  surface,  not 
in  heaps,  but  spread,  that  they  may  be  well  exposed  to 
the  ripening  influence  of  the  atmosphere,  and  if  to  the 
frosts  of  winter,  the  better.  They  have  been  found 
sometimes  to  be  injurious  without  this  exposure.  Their 
operation  is  similar  to  that  of  mild  lime,  though  slower. 
This  kind  of  marl  is  most  beneficially  applied  to  sandy, 
gravelly,  and  peaty  soils.  It  gives  to  such  soils,  what 
they  want,  both  lime  and  clay.  To  improve  a  soil,  20 
or  30  loads  of  this  marl  are  given  to  the  acre  ;  but  when 
the  object  is  to  change  the  constitution  of  a  defective 
soil,  doses  of  300  to  400  cart-loads  are  given  to  the 
acre.  The  best  way  is  to  spread  it  upon  the  sward, 
where  it  remains  until  the  land  is  brought  under  tillage. 
We  have  used  the  blue  clay,  containing  25  to  30  per 
cent,  of  the  carbonate  of  lime,  upon  blowing  sands,  at 
the  rate  of  20  loads  the  acre,  to  very  great  advantage  ; 
and  consider  its  ultimate  benefit  greater  than  that  of  an 
equal  quantity  of  stable-dung.  When  taken  to  the  field 
it  should  be  immediately  scattered  upon  the  surface  ;  the 
frost  and  weather  so  divide  and  break  it  down,  that,  when 
dry,  it  may  be  broken  into  powder,  with  but  little  labor. 

Shell-marl  is  a  deposit  of  marine,  and  sometimes  of 
8* 


90  IMPROVEMENT   OF  THE    SOIL 

land-shells,  immense  beds  of  which  are  found  along  our 
southern  Atlantic  border,  and  frequently  in  the  interior, 
where  fresh-water  ponds  have  apparently  existed,  and 
where  the  marl  is  generally  covered  with  a  bed  of  peat 
earth.  This  may  be  applied  at  the  rate  of  25  to  30  loads 
to  the  acre  ;  and  may  be  spread  upon  stubble,  upon  a  fal- 
low, or  upon  grass.  While  it  benefits  the  herbage,  the 
mineral  sinks  into  the  soil,  and  prepares  it,  when  broken 
up,  for  the  arable  crop.  Its  effects  are  slower  than  those 
of  lime,  though  they  are  said  to  last  longer. 

A  species  oi  green  sand  is  coming  into  extensive  use 
in  the  maritime  borders  of  New  Jersey,  Maryland,  and 
Virginia,  which  is  found  of  great  potency  in  imparting 
fertility  to  the  soil.  Its  fertilizing  properties  do  not  con- 
sist of  carbonate  of  lime,  but  of  potash,  of  which  it  gives 
on  analysis  about  14  per  cent.  It  is  applied  like  marl, 
but  in  somewhat  less  doses. 

Common  salt  has  been  highly  recommended  as  a  fer- 
tilizing material,  and  in  many  cases  certainly  has  been 
used  with  great  effect ;  yet  there  do  not  seem  to  be 
any  established  rules  to  guide  in  its  appHcation.  It  is  no 
doubt  beneficially  applied  to  some  soils,  and  to  some 
crops,  while  upon  other  soils  and  other  crops  it  seems 
to  be  inoperative.  It  should  be  used  sparingly,  and 
should  be  mixed  with  manures  or  composts. 

It  has  been  ascertained  by  experiments  made  by  Hitt, 
Knight,  Johnson,  and  others,  that  salt  is  serviceable  in 
preventing  some  diseases  of  plants,  as  well  as  of  animals. 
In  the  late  investigations  by  a  committee  of  the  British 
Parliament,  on  the  question  of  reducing  the  duty  on  salt 
for  agricultural  purposes,  it  abundantly  appeared,  that  its 
free  use  to  farm-stock  was  the  best  preventive  of  disease  ; 
and  that  in  several  instances,  where  flocks  of  sheep  had 
been  diseased,  they  had  been  restored  to  health  by  the 
liberal  use  of  this  condiment.  Used  in  moderate  quan- 
tities, it  is  said  to  prevent  mildew  on  the  gooseberry,  and 
on  various  garden  and  field  crops. 

Until  we  know  more  of  the  peculiar  properties  of  soils, 
and  of  the  operation  of  mineral  mixtures,  the  only  way  to 
determine  the  efficacy  and  economy  of  these   applica- 


BY  MINERAL  MANURES.  91 

tions,  is  to  experiment  with  them,  upon  a  limited  scale, 
upon  our  own  ground.  Although  hme  effects  wonders 
in  some  districts,  and  upon  some  farms,  yet  in  other  ca- 
ses it  does  no  good.  This  difference  is  sometimes  found 
to  exist  upon  the  same  farm, — one  portion  becoming 
highly  benefited  by  hme,  and  another  portion  not  at  all 
affected  by  its  application.  General  prescriptions  can 
with  no  more  propriety  be  apphed  to  bad  soils,  than  they 
can  be  to  the  bad  health  of  animals.  What  would  cure 
the  animal  in  one  case  might  kill  in  another  ;  and  what 
benefits  one  soil  in  one  case,  might  be  inoperative  or 
prejudicial  in  another. 

The  admixture  of  earths,  to  improve  the  mechanical 
texture  of  soils, — as  sands  with  clays,  and  clays  with 
sands, — is  often  made  with  advantage  ;  and  we  are  per- 
suaded may  be  profitably  carried  to  a  greater  extent, 
when  the  difierent  kinds  are  found  contiguous  to  each 
other.  We  have  seen  that  sand,  clay,  hme,  and  organic 
matters  are  all  useful  constituents  in  a  fertile  soil.  When 
one  of  them  is  deficient,  it  may  often  be  supplied  without 
much  expense,  and  a  permanent  improvement  effected 
thereby.  It  is  on  this  principle  that  we  apply  lime, 
marl,  and  manures.  The  soil  being  deficient  in  these, 
or  any  one  of  them,  by  supplying  the  deficiency,  we  re- 
store it  to  its  pristine  condition,  and  sometimes  increase 
its  prolific  powers.  And  we  are  often  able  to  render 
peaty  lands  productive,  after  they  have  been  drained,  by 
blending  sand,  clay,  or  loam,  or  lime,  with  the  vegetable 
matters  with  which  they  abound. 

From  the  facts  given  in  this  and  the  preceding  chap- 
ter, it  will  be  apparent,  that  we  lack  not  the  means  of 
feeding  our  farm-crops,  and  of  thereby  increasing  our 
farm-products  :  we  lack  only  the  intelligence  and  indus- 
try which  are  necessary  to  render  the  means  efficient. 
Most  of  our  old-settled  districts  are  employing  one  or 
more  of  these  means  to  renovate  the  fertility  of  the  soil  ; 
but  it  is  doubtful  whether  any  are  employing  all  which 
are  at  their  command  to  effect  this  object.  The  east 
are  depending  principally  upon  the  resources  of  their 
cattle-yard,  wherever  they  have  become  sensible  of  the 


92  I3IPR0VEMEET   OF   THE    SOIL 

importance  and  practicability  of  improvement.  Upon 
Long  Island,  fish,  drawn  ashes,  and  street  manure,  with 
clover,  and  alternation  of  crops,  are  rehed  upon  as  sour- 
ces of  fertility  and  profit.  In  the  valley  of  the  Hudson, 
clover,  gypsum,  and  alternation  of  crops,  and  mixed  hus- 
bandry, have  done  much  towards  improvement,  and  are 
likely  to  do  much  more.  In  New  Jersey,  the  green 
sand  is  working  miracles,  and  stimulating  the  farmers  to 
new  exertions  in  improvement.  In  Eastern  Pennsylvania, 
lime  and  plaster  have  done  much.  In  Maryland  and 
Virginia,  marl  is  the  efficient  agent  of  improvement,  near 
tide-water,  and  clover  and  gypsum  in  the  interior.  And 
as  to  the  south  and  west,  they  either  do  not  seem  to  know 
that  land  can  wear  out,  or,  reckless  of  the  future,  they 
seem  determined  to  kill  the  goose  which  lays  the  golden 
egg.  With,  to  be  sure,  many  highly  creditable  excep- 
tions, the  tendency  of  the  system  of  husbandry  at  present 
pursued  in  the  new  south  and  west,  is  to  wear  out  the 
soil,  as  it  has  been  worn  out,  in  many  cases,  on  the  east- 
ern borders  of  our  country. 

Having  shown,  in  the  last  chapter,  that  manures  are 
indispensable  to  good  husbandry — that  they  constitute 
the  food  of  plants,  and  tend  to  ameliorate  and  fit  the  soil 
for  the  performance  of  its  important  offices  ;--and  having 
noticed  those  manures  which  are  most  available  to  the 
farmer,  and  indicated  the  mode  of  profitably  applying 
them — we  proceed  now  to  the  next  stage  of  improvement. 


CHAPTER  XI. 

IMPROVEMENT  OF  THE  SOIL  BY  DRAINING. 

Few  improvements,  of  modern  introduction,  promise 
greater  benefits  to  husbandry  than  thorough  draining. 
Whatever  be  the  earthy  constituents  of  the  soil,  or 
whatever  its  richness  in  organic  matters,  no  northern  cul- 
tivated crop  will  grow  and  produce  well  on  lands  that  are 
habitually  wet. 


BY  DRAINING.  93 

In  the  first  place,  draining  will  reclaim,  and  render 
productive,  large  tracts  of  land,  which  now  produce  little 
or  nothing  useful,  by  reason  of  the  water  which  covers 
or  saturates  them.  In  the  next  place,  it  will  improve 
lands  that  are  cold  and  wet,  by  reason  of  a  level  surface 
and  retentive  subsoil,  and  render  them  far  more  manage- 
able and  productive,  in  grain,  roots,  and  the  more  nutri- 
tious grasses,  by  carrying  off  the  superfluous  water. 
When  there  is  an  excess  of  moisture  in  the  soil,  plough- 
ing and  pulverization  can  only  be  imperfectly  performed, 
nor  till  late  in  spring,  or  in  favorable  weather — the  bene- 
fit of  manure  is  lost,  and  the  cultivated  crop  is  light,  and 
more  hable  to  be  injured  by  late  and  early  frosts,  than  it 
would  be  if  the  land  were  laid  dry.  From  the  experience 
of  others,  as  well  as  from  our  own  observation,  we  can 
venture  to  say,  that  by  thoroughly  draining  lands  of  the 
above  description,  two  weeks  upon  an  average  are  gained 
in  the  getting  in  and  the  ripening  of  the  crop,  one  third  is 
gained  in  product,  and  one  third  is  saved  in  the  labor 
of  tillage. 

We  have  likened  the  offices  of  the  soil  to  those  of  the 
animal  stomach — the  preparation  of  food.  And  we  have 
said  that  these  offices  cannot  be  healthfully  performed, 
by  the  soil,  without  the  agency  of  heat  and  air,  as  well 
as  of  moisture.  Now  an  excess  of  the  latter  excludes 
the  proper  agency  of  the  two  former.  We  all  know 
that  when  the  animal  stomach  is  out  of  order,  from  any 
cause,  so  that  the  food  taken  upon  it  is  not  properly  di- 
gested, the  subsequent  processes  of  nutrition  are  arrested, 
the  animal  sickens,  and  ultimately  dies.  So  with  the 
soil.  If  the  organic  matters  deposited  there,  to  feed  the 
crop,  are  not  decomposed,  or  rotted,  and  resolved  into  a 
liquid  or  gaseous  form,  so  that  they  can  be  taken  up  by 
the  spongioles,  the  cultivated  plant  will  become  sickly 
and  unproductive,  and  the  processes  of  healthy  nutrition 
be  at  a  stand.  This  is  the  case  in  all  grounds  habitually 
saturated  with  water.  Hence  the  accumulation  to  excess, 
in  such  grounds,  of  peaty  and  inert  vegetable  matters,  and 
their  great  fertility  when  thoroughly  drained,  and  the  ve- 
getable matters  rendered  soluble  ;  and  hence  the  necessi- 


94  IMPROVEMENT   OF  THE    SOIL 

ty  of  draining  the  wet  grounds  upon  our  farms,  before  we 
can  expect  to  make  them  profitable  by  cuhure.  Coarse 
aquatic  plants,  it  is  true,  do  grow  in  wet  grounds,  and  in 
water  ;  but  few  of  the  cultivated  crops  are  found  to  thrive 
where  the  ground  is  not  dry,  and  permeable  to  the  influ- 
ence of  the  sun  and  the  atmosphere. 

It  is  not  enough,  that  the  surface  of  a  soil  be  dry,  or 
that  the  soil  itself  be  dry  at  some  seasons  of  the  year  ;  it 
must  be  free  from  excess  of  water  at  all  seasons  when  re- 
quired to  be  worked,  and  during  the  growth  of  plants,  to 
the  depth  to  which  their  roots  penetrate  for  food,  at  least 
fifteen  to  eighteen  inches,  to  insure  a  healthy  growth  of 
vegetation.  It  is  the  extremities  of  these  roots  which 
gather  the  food,  and  which  are  constantly  lengthening,  in 
annuals  and  perennials,  while  the  plant  grows  ;  and  if  roots 
extend  into  a  wet  stratum  of  soil,  the  food  they  take  up 
is  either  too  much  diluted,  or  not  otherwise  adapted  to  a 
healthy  vegetation.  Besides,  stagnant  water  in  the  soil 
injures  or  destroys  the  fibrous  parts  of  the  roots,  and  un- 
fits them  for  the  performance  of  their  functions.  Nor  is 
this  all  :  lands  that  hold  water  in  a  wet  season,  become 
compact  and  hard  when  the  water  has  subsided  or  evap- 
orated— impenetrable  alike  to  the  roots  of  the  crop,  and 
the  amehorating  influence  of  the  atmosphere.  Wet 
clays  suffer  most  from  drought.  The  truth  of  these  re- 
marks may  be  verified  by  any  farmer  who  will  compare 
the  growth  and  product  of  crops  upon  w^et  and  dry  grounds. 

We  have  no  question  of  the  economy  of  draining  W'et 
lands,  even  if  they  are  to  be  kept  in  meadow  and  pasture, 
provided  the  work  is  well  done.  There  are  but  few 
nutritious  grasses  that  will  thrive  in  a  wet  soil.  The  fol- 
lowing simple  table,  says  Armstrong,  exhibits  at  a  glance 
the  present  state  of  our  knowledge  on  this  important 
part  of  our  subject. 

Whole  number  of  plants  in  wet  meadows,  30  ;   useful,  4;  useless  or  bad,  26. 
Do.  dry  meadows,  38 ;      do.      8 ;  do.  30. 

Do.  moist  meadows,  42 ;      do.     17;  do.  25. 

We  have  expended  considerable  money  in  this  kind  of 
improvement,  and  our  experience  has  more  and  more 
confirmed  our  opinion  of  its  advantages.     An  outlay  of 


BY   DRAINING.  95 

15  to  20  dollars  an  acre  in  draining,  has  often  been  repaid 
by  the  extra  product  of  the  reclaimed  land  in  two  or  three 
seasons. 

Wet  soils  proceed  from  two  causes,  viz.,  first,  from 
the  rain  and  snow  waters  which  fall  upon  the  surface, 
which  are  arrested  in  their  downward  course,  by  an  im- 
pervious stratum  of  earth  or  rock,  and,  if  the  surface  is 
level,  or  nearly  so,  repose  and  stagnate  there,  rendering 
the  soil  compact,  wet,  and  cold,  and  infertile.  And, 
secondly,  from  waters  which,  having  passed  through 
porous  strata,  are  arrested  by  an  impervious  stratum  lower 
down  ;  and,  operated  upon  by  a  constant  pressure,  find 
their  outlet  upon  the  outcroppings  of  the  impervious  stra- 
tum, or  are  forced  up  again  in  the  form  of  spouts  and 
springs, — and  which  impart  to  the  soil  which  they  saturate, 
an  excess  of  moisture,  and  a  cold  temperature,  wholly 
unsuited  to  the  growth  of  farm-crops. 

The  first  object,  in  seeking  to  rid  lands  of  surplus 
water,  is,  to  determine  from  which  of  the  above  causes 
the  evil  arises  ; — and  having  ascertained  the  cause — 
having  located  the  fountain  of  waters — the  next  considera- 
tion is,  how  to  get  rid  of,  or  drain  it,  with  the  least  ex- 
pense, and  with  most  benefit  to  the  land. 

A  stiff  soil,  as  one  of  clay  lying  upon  a  slope,  or 
being  upon  a  level,  and  having  a  porous  subsoil,  may  be 
sufficiently  freed  from  water  by  throwing  the  land  into 
ridges,  terminating  in  the  lower  level.  These  ridges  may 
be  narrow  or  wide,  according  to  the  tenacity  of  the  soil, 
and  the  slope  of  the  surface.  This  is  one  kind  of  sur- 
face-draining. 

In  hollows  and  other  depressions  of  surface,  where 
waters  accumulate  suddenly,  from  thawing  of  snow  or 
heavy  rains,  open  drains  should  in  all  cases  be  made ; 
and  these  should  be  of  capacity  to  receive  all  the  waters 
which  may  come  into  them,  and  of  sufficient  slope  at 
the  sides  to  render  their  banks  secure  and  permanent. 
These  are  also  to  serve  as  outlets  to  the  under-drains. 
Surface-drains  of  this  kind  are  often  wholly  insufficient, 
by  reason  of  their  not  being  deep  or  broad  enougli,  or 
they  become  contracted  from  a  want  of  care  in  scouring 


96  IMPROVEMENT   OF  THE   SOIL 

and  keeping  them  in  order.     Parsimony  in  draining  is 
seldom  economy  in  farming. 

When  wemess  is  caused  by  spouts  or  springs,  rising 
from  below,  the  object  is  to  prevent  the  water  rising  to  or 
saturating  the  soil,  and  spreading  through  the  grounds  lying 
below  ;  and  the  mode  of  effecting  this  is  to  cut  a  drain  at 
the  point,  or  a  little  above  it,  where  the  water  from  these 
spouts  or  springs  seems  first  to  affect  the  surface  soil. 
Where  the  soil  is  very  porous,  the  presence  of  water  may 
not  be  indicated  upon  the  surface.  In  this  case,  holes 
should  be  made  down  to  the  subsoil,  at  different  levels, 
to  ascertain  where  the  fountain  is.  The  drain  should  be 
so  far  sunk  into  the  subsoil,  as  to  make  a  complete  chan- 
nel in  it  for  the  water  which  it  is  expected  to  convey. 
Under-drains  are  decidedly  preferable  for  this  kind  of 
improvement  : — Because, 

1.  They  are  most  efficient.  They  can  be  made  to 
reach,  by  digging  and  boring,  the  depot  of  water,  or  wa- 
ter stratum,  and  thus  to  carry  off  the  water  before  it  ap- 
proaches the  surface,  or  pasture  of  plants.  Open  drains 
do  this  but  seldom,  or  imperfectly,  because  they  are  not 
often  carried  deep  enough,  and  are  continually  liable  to 
obstructions,  which  impair  their  efficiency. 

2.  They  are  most  durable.  An  under-drain,  laid  in 
the  most  approved  mode,  with  stone  or  tile,  will  last  an 
age,  and  perhaps  a  century.  Open  drains  are  but  tem- 
porary in  their  beneficial  effects,  without  periodical  re- 
pairs. 

3.  They  are  most  economical.  A  good  under-drain 
costs  no  more  than  a  good  open  drain,  designed  for  a 
like  purpose,  and  which  probably  does  not  effect  so  much, 
as  the  former  can  be  carried  down  with  nearly  perpen- 
dicular sides,  while  the  latter  must  be  dug  with  sloping 
banks,  and  must  embrace  a  width  of  surface  corresponding 
with  its  depth — the  deeper  the  drain,  the  broader  it  must  be 
at  the  top.  The  cost  of  the  stone  or  tile  is  in  a  manner 
counterbalanced  by  the  difference  in  excavation.  And, 
when  completed,  the  under-drain  will  seldom  require  re- 
pairs, while  the  open  one  will  be  a  constant  drain  upon 
the   labor  of   the   farm,   requiring  bridges  and  frequent 


BY  DRAINING.  97 

scourings  and  cleanings.  If  under-drains  cost  something 
the  most,  they  are  certainly  cheapest  in  the  end,  if  they 
are  well  constructed  ;  and  they  waste  no  land. 

The  only  other  kind  of  drains  we  shall  mention,  are 
what  are  termed  fm-row-drains.  They  are  of  recent 
introduction  even  in  Europe,  and  particularly  distinguish 
Scotch  husbandry.  They  are  employed  upon  lands 
which  are  nearly  level,  where  there  is  a  tenacious  subsoil, 
to  free  them  from  an  excess  of  water  at  all  seasons  when 
the  ground  is  not  frozen.  The  field  intended  to  be  fur- 
row-drained is  laid  into  ridges,  of  from  sixteen  to  thir- 
ty feet  broad,  according  to  the  texture  of  the  soil,  in 
the  direction  of  the  slope,  or  with  such  descent  as  to  carry 
off  the  water,  and  under-drains  are  laid  in  every  central 
furrow,  so  deep,  that,  when  covered,  the  materials  of  the 
drain  shall  not  be  disturbed  by  the  plough.  A  cross- 
drain  is  laid  on  the  upper  margin  of  the  field,  to  catch  the 
water  coming  from  above,  and  another  at  the  lower  side, 
which  should  be  six  inches  deeper  than  the  furrow-drains, 
to  receive  and  convey  off  the  water  from  them.  The 
effect  of  these  drains  is  to  enable  the  cultivator  to  work 
the  land  easier,  better,  and  at  his  leisure,  and  greatly  to 
increase  its  product.  The  labor  and  expense  of  this 
kind  of  drains  seem  great,  to  those  who  have  not  made 
them,  and  their  economy  may  seem  doubtful  ;  but  we  are 
persuaded  that,  after  a  little  experience,  the  benefit  will 
be  found  to  outweigh  the  expense. 

Wherever  coarse  aquatic  grasses  are  found  growing, 
however  dry  the  surface  may  appear,  the  farmer  may  de- 
pend that  under-draining  will  be  an  improvement,  and  if 
he  will  sink  a  pit,  eighteen  inches  deep,  in  such  places, 
he  will  in  a  few  hours  find  water  at  the  bottom. 

We  draw  no  comparison,  nor  do  we  need  any,  to  show 
the  difference  in  products  and  profits  between  a  field  ha- 
bitually wet,  and  the  trouble  and  expense  of  managing  it, 
and  the  same  field  after  it  has  undergone  a  thorough  drain- 
age and  amelioration.  In  the  first  case  it  produces  very 
little,  and  seldom  pays  the  expense  of  cultivation.  In  the 
latter,  it  is  often  the  most  productive  field  on  the  farm. 
Every  farmer,  we  presume,  has  noticed  the  vast  dispari- 
9  XV. 


98  OPERATIONS    OF  DRAINING. 

ty.  If  there  is  one  to  whom  it  is  not  famihar,  let  him 
make  the  trial,  and  he  will  be  astonished  at  the  result, 
and  at  his  own  want  of  forethought  in  not  having  made  it 
before. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

OPERATIONS    OF    DRAINING. 

For  the  purpose  of  illustrating  the  operations  of  drain- 
ing, we  shall  consider  the  subject  under, — 

1.  Draining  the  surface; 

2.  Draining  the  soil ;  and, 

3.  Draining  the  subsoil. 

1.  Draining  the  surface.  Surface-water  wants  only 
a  suitable  channel,  and  a  moderate  inclination,  to  readily 
pass  off.  In  case  of  heavy  rains,  it  is  seen  that  tenacious 
soils,  upon  a  level  or  slightly-inclined  surface,  are  liable 
to  be  flooded  with  surface-water,  which  often  stands  for 
some  time  in  pools,  destroys  the  seed  or  growing  crops, 
and  renders  the  soil,  when  dry,  compact  and  hard.  Again, 
in  ravines,  or  depressed  surfaces,  the  like  evils  are  liable 
to  occur,  from  the  sudden  accumulations  of  water,  with- 
out a  proper  gradation  of  surface,  and  a  sufficient  drain  to 
carry  it  off. 

In  the  first  case,  the  evil  may  be  corrected  by  throw- 
ing the  land  into  ridges,  the  modes  of  doing  which  we 
shall  prescribe  under  the  article  ploughing. 

In  the  second  case,  when  large  quantities  of  surface- 
water  are  liable  to  concentrate  from  heavy  rains,  an  open 
drain  or  ditch  is  the  only  resort.  This  should  be  capa- 
cious enough  to  carry  off,  in  its  channel,  all  the  waters 
that  may  thus  accumulate.  It  should  be  from  two  to  four 
feet  deep,  to  give  a  sufficient  descent  to  drain  off  the 
waters  from  the  contiguous  grounds.  Its  banks  should 
have  a  slope  of  45  degrees,  that  they  may  resist  the  pres- 
sure from  the  surface,  and  the  action  of  the  water  ;  and 
in  digging  the  sides  should  be  left  solid,  without  being 


OPERATIONS    OF  DRAINING.  99 

hacked  or  perforated  with  the  spade.  The  earth  taken 
from  the  trenches  should  be  removed  from  their  borders, 
and  either  spread  over  the  surface,  or,  if  peaty,  taken  to 
the  compost-heap,  or  to  higher  grounds,  so  as  to  leave  a 
slight  inclination,  on  each  side,  for  the  surface-v^^aters  to 
pass  into  the  drain. 

2,  Draining  the  soil — of  waters  reposing  upon  the 
subsoil.  The  soil,  if  the  subsoil  is  porous,  or  a  consid- 
erable inclination  exists  in  its  position,  may  be  freed  from 
surface-w^ater  by  ridging.  The  surplus  water,  in  these 
cases,  either  settles  down  through  the  subsoil,  or  passes 
off  through  the  furrows  between  the  ridges  or  upon  the 
inclined  subsoil.  But  where  the  surface  is  nearly  level, 
and  the  subsoil  tenacious,  under-drains  must  be  resorted 
to,  into  which  the  water  may  settle  and  be  conducted  off, 
before  it  injures  the  crops  or  texture  of  the  soil. 

Under-drains,  in  cases  to  which  we  now  have  refer- 
ence, need  be  but  two  to  three  feet  deep,  so  that  the  ma- 
terial of  which  they  are  constituted  shall  not  be  liable  to 
be  disturbed  by  the  tread  of  cattle,  or  the  operations  of 
the  plough.  Some  fifteen  or  twenty  inches  of  these  may 
be  economically  sunk  by  the  plough.  The  instruments 
for  completing  them,  are  the  common  spade  and  shovel, 
for  throwing  out  the  loose  substances,  and  a  pick  or  mat- 
tock for  raising  the  stones  and  breaking  the  earth  where 
hard.  The  sides  may  be  nearly  perpendicular,  and  the 
ditch  be  no  broader  than  is  merely  convenient  to  work  in. 
The  workmen  should  commence  at  the  lower,  and  work 
up  to  the  higher  ground  ;  and  so  much  descent  should 
not  be  given  as  to  render  the  bottom  and  sides  liable  to 
be  worn  away  by  a  strong  current  of  water. 

The  materials  to  be  used  for  forming  the  drains,  may 
be  stones,  tiles,  or  other  hard  substances.  In  drains  where 
considerable  water  is  expected  to  flow,  it  is  advisable  to 
form  a  conduit  at  the  bottom,  of  four  to  ten  inches  square. 
Where  stones  are  to  be  employed,  either  as  a  covering 
to  the  conduit,  or  as  a  drain  of  themselves,  they  should 
be  broken  to  so  small  a  size,  that  moles  or  ground-mice 
cannot  penetrate  and  find  a  shelter  among  them  ;  for  if 
they  can  they  will ;  and  by  opening  apertures  to  the  sur- 


100 


OPERATIONS    or  DRAINING. 


face,  they  will  let  in  surface-water,  with  the  earthy  mat- 
ters which  it  contains,  and  which  will  ultimately  fill  the 
interstices  and  choke  up  the  drain.  The  stones  should 
be  broken  to  a  size  not  to  exceed  four  inches,  the  ex- 
pense of  doing  which  will  not  exceed  25  to  30  cents  the 
cubic  yard.  If  a  stone  conduit  is  laid,  or  tiles  are  em- 
ployed, the  first  covering  of  them  should  be  broken  stone, 
or  porous  materials,  to  a  convenient  height,  in  order  that 
the  water  settling  from  above,  may  find  free  access  to  the 
drain.  Conduits  of  stone  are  seldom  necessary  in  furrow- 
draining — it  being  sufficient  to  break  and  throw  in  stone 
from  12  to  24  inches  in  depth. 

Conduits  to  under-drains  are  made  by  building  a  little 
wall,  roughly,  with  stone  or  brick,  on  each  side  at  the 
bottom,  about  6  inches  in  height,  so  as  to  leave  a  passage 
for  the  water  six  inches  in  width  and  six  inches  high. 
These  side-walls  are  covered  with  flat  stones,  as  close  as 
can  be  conveniently  placed,  and  straws  or  litter  thrown 
over  to  defend  the  conduit  from  earth  and  other  substan- 
ces which  might  get  into  it  before  the  ground  has  become 
compact  and  firm.  When  this  is  done,  broken  stones 
may  be  thrown  in  promiscuously,  if  they  are  at  hand,  to 
the  height  of  6  to  24  inches,  according  to  the  supply  and 
the  depth  of  the  drain  ;  and  the  earth  then  filled  in  and 
rounded  upon  the  surface.  A  drain  thus  formed  will  ap- 
pear on  a  transverse  section  as  in  fig.  1,  and  after  the 
subsidence  of  the  earth  as  in  fig.  2.  Where  the  earth  is 
Fig.  1.  Fig.  2. 


OPERATIONS   OF  DRAINING. 


101 


very  soft,  it  is  of  benefit  to  bed  the  bottom  of  the  drain 
with  stones  or  slates,  or  with  boards  or  plank. 

We  believe  we  were  among  the  first  to  employ  tiles  in 
draining  in  the  United  States,  though  they  have  long  been 
in  use  in  Europe.  We  adopted  them  as  a  matter  of  ne- 
cessity, having  no  stone.  They  are  made  of  a  peculiar 
kind  of  clay,  and  resemble,  when  burnt,  red  earthen. 
When  sufficiently  burnt,  they  are  very  durable.  They 
are  used  with  soles  made  of  like  materials,  or  are  laid 
upon  boards.  The  draining-tiles  and  soles  are  represent- 
ed by  fig.  3.  We  have  laid  some  ten  thousand  feet  of 
tiles,  for  which  we  paid  ^15  per  thousand  feet,  and  find 
them  to  answer  an  excellent  purpose.  We  recommend 
their  use  only  where  stone  cannot  be  readily  obtained. 


Fig.  3. 


Fig.  4. 


Tile  drains,  as  seen  at  fig.  4,  may  be  finished  at  bot- 
tom by  using  a  narrow-mouthed  spade,  somewhat  taper- 
ing, and  broad  enough  to  admit  the  tile  and  its  sole,  or  a 
board  ;  the  tiles  are  then  laid  down  close,  and  the  joints 
covered  with  turf,  or  straw,  or  brush,  and  the  space  on 
the  sides  compactly  filled,  so  as  to  prevent  the  passage  of 
water  there  ;  small  stones  or  porous  earth  may  be  then 
laid  on,  so  that  the  water  from  above  may  pass  freely  into 
the  drain,  and  the  trench  then  filled  with  earth. 

What  we  term  soil-draining,  is  most  frequently  resorted 
to  in  swamps  and  low  lands,  into  which  the  water  collects 
from  higher  grounds,  and  which  is  prevented  from  passing 
9* 


102 


OPERATIONS    OF  DRAINING. 


off  by  an  impervious  stratum  below,  and  often  upon  the 
borders.  The  first  object  here  is  to  make  an  outlet,  of 
sufficient  size  and  depth  to  carry  off  the  water  ;  the  sec- 
ond to  carry  a  main  drain  through  the  marsh  or  swamp  ; 
and  the  third  to  lay  lateral  and  other  under-drains,  accord- 
ing to  the  extent  of  the  ground,  to  collect  and  conduct 
the  waters  into  the  main  drain.  The  under-drains  should 
not  enter  the  main  drain  at  right  angles,  but  diagonally, 
inclining  down  the  stream.  If  waters  come  in  from  the 
margins  of  the  low  ground,  they  must  be  arrested  then 
by  under-drains,  and  conducted  off,  as  represented  in  fig. 
5.    Care  should  be  taken  to  sink  the  main  drain,  and  the 

Fig.  5. 


Cross  Section. 


others,  particularly  those  around  the  margin  of  the  swamp, 
into  the  subsoil,  or  impervious  stratum,  so  that  the  water 
shall  not  pass  under  the  drain  into  the  lower  ground.  If 
the  surface-water  that  flows  into  the  main  drain  be  con- 


OPERATIONS    OF  DRAINING.  103 

siderable,  it  should  be  open,  but  covered  in  all  other 
cases. 

There  is  another  mode,  which  is  sometimes  success- 
fully practised,  of  getting  rid  of  the  water  which  reposes 
upon  the  subsoil,  when  the  stratum  of  the  subsoil  is  thin, 
and  lies  upon  a  porous  gravel  or  sand  ;  which  is,  by  bo- 
ring or  digging  through  the  subsoil,  so  as  to  let  the  water 
pass  into  the  porous  stratum  below.  In  this  case  the 
holes  or  pits  are  generally  filled  with  stones,  and  the  drains 
conducted  to  them. 

3.  Subsoil  draining,  or  the  drainage  of  waters  that 
rise  through  the  subsoil,  or  pass  off  at  its  outcroppings, 
as  upon  the  declivities  of  hills,  &c.  In  discussing  this 
section,  we  shall  principally  quote  from  Professor  Low's 
Elements  of  Practical  Agriculture. 

"  It  is  the  intercepting  of  water  below  the  surface  that 
constitutes  the  most  difficult  part  of  draining,  and  which 
requires  the  application  of  principles  which  it  is  not  ne- 
cessary to  apply  in  the  case  of  surface-draining. 

"  If  we  shall  penetrate  a  little  way  into  the  looser  por- 
tion of  earth,  we  shall  generally  find  a  minute  stratification, 
consisting  of  gravel,  sand,  or  clay,  of  different  degrees  of 
density.  These  strata  are  frequently  horizontal,  frequent- 
ly they  follow  nearly  the  inclination  of  the  surface,  and 
frequently  they  are  broken  and  irregular.  Sometimes  the 
stratum  is  very  thin,  and  a  few  inches  in  thickness,  and 
sometimes  it  is  several  feet  thick  ;  and  sometimes  the 
traces  of  stratification  disappear,  and  we  find  only,  to  a 
great  depth,  a  large  mass  of  clay  or  other  homogeneous 
substance. 

"When  these  substances  are  of  a  clayey  nature,  water 
finds  its  way  through  them  with  difficulty ;  when  they  are 
of  a  looser  texture,  water  percolates  through  them  freely. 
These,  accordingly,  form  the  natural  conduits  or  channels 
for  the  w^ater  which  is  below  the  surface,  when  finding  its 
way  from  a  higher  to  a  lower  level. 

"  When  any  bed  or  stratum  of  this  kind,   in  which 

water  is   percolating,  crops   out  to  the  surface,  the  wa- 

*ter   which   it   contains   will   flow   out   and   form  a   burst 

or  spring,  oozing  over  and  saturating  the  ground,  as  in 


104 


OPERATIONS   OF  DRAINING. 


fig.  6,  which  represents  a  section  of  the  ground  from  C 
toD. 


Fig.  6. 


Fig.  7. 


''  When  water  is,  in  like  manner,  percolating  through 
one  of  these  pervious  strata,  and  meets  with  any  obstruc- 
tion, as  a  rock  or  bed  of  clay,  (A,  fig.  7,)  it  is  stopped 
in  its  progress,  and,  by  the  pressure  of  the  water  from  a 
higher  source,  it  is  forced  upwards,  and  thus  saturates  the 
superjacent  soil,  as  from  D  to  E,  forming  springs  or  a 
general  oozing. 

"  In  either  of  these  cases,  and  they  are  the  most  fre- 
quent that  occur  in  practice,  the  object  of  the  drainer  is 


OPERATIONS    OF  DRAINING, 


105 


to  reach  the  water  in  its  subterraneous  channel  before  it 
shall  arrive  at  the  surface,  and  carry  it  away  in  a  drain. 

"  By  cutting  a  drain  at  A,  fig.  6,  the  water  of  the 
stratum  of  sand,  C  E,  is  cut  off  before  it  reaches  the  sur- 
face at  E,  where  it  forms  the  swamp,  C  D. 

"  In  hke  manner,  in  fig.  7,  by  forming  a  drain  at  C, 
or  F,  the  water  is  cut  off  in  its  channel  A  B,  and  thus, 
in  reheving  the  pressure  from  a  higher  source,  by  giving 
egress  to  the  water  through  the  drain,  the  cause  of  the 
wetness  from  E  to  D  is  removed. 

"  In  looking  at  the  slo- 
ping surface  of  any  tract  of 
ground,  as  a  field,  in  which 
there  is  an  oozing  or  burst- 
ing out  of  water,  we  shall 
generally  distinguish  the  line 
where  the  wetness  appears 
upon  the  surface,  extending 
over  a  considerable  space, 
X  X  X  X  x^  fi^.  8^  the  effects 
appearing  in  the  wetness  of 
the  ground  further  down  the 
slope,  as  y  y  y-  The  line 
where  the  wetness  begins, 
which  is  generally  rendered 
perceptible  by  the  change 
of  color  of  the  soil,  the  ten- 
dency to  produce  subaquatic 
plants,  and  other  indications 
of  wetness,  marks,  for  the 
most  part,  nearly  the  course 
which  the  line  of  the  drain 
should  follow.  By  cutting 
a  drain  nearly  in  this  line, 
as  from  G  to  A,  sufficiently 
deep  to  reach  the  stratum  in 
which  the  water  percolates, 
we  shall  intercept  it  before  it  reaches  the  surface,  and  by 
carrying  it  away  in  some  convenient  outlet,  A  B,  remove 
the  cause  of  wetness. 


106 


OPERATIONS    OF  DRAINING. 


"  This  accordingly  forms,  in  the  greater  number  of 
cases,  the  rule  adopted  in  practice  for  the  laying  out  of 
drains  upon  the  surface.  The  line  is  drawn  nearly  at, 
or  a  little  above,  the  line  of  wetness,  or,  to  use  the  com- 
mon expression,  between  the  wet  and  the  dry. 

"  Should  the  line  of  drain  be  drawn  too  much  below 
the  hne  of  w^etness,  as  at  G,  fig.  5,  then  the  trench  would 
fail  to  intercept  the  water  ;  and  further,  if  it  were  filled 
with  earth,  stones,  and  other  substances,  in  the  way  to  be 
afterwards  described,  the  whole,  or  a  part,  of  the  water 
would  pass  over  it,  and  the  injury  be  unremoved. 

"  Again,  should  the  line  be  too  much  above  the  line 
of  wetness,  as  at  H,  the  drain  would  fail  to  reach  the 
channel  of  the  water,  and  so 
would  be  useless. 

"  It  is  for  this  reason  that,  in 
common  practice,  the  rule  is,  to 
clear  the  line  of  the  drain  nearly 
between  the  wet  and  the  dry,  or 
a  little  above  it,  taking  care  to 
give  it  the  necessary  descent,  and 
to  form  it  of  sufficient  depth  to 
reach  the  pervious  bed  or  stra- 
tum in  which  the  water  is  con- 
tained. 

"  But  as  the  water  may  arrive 
at  the  surface  in  different  ways, 
and  the  wetness  be  produced  by 
different  causes,  so  variations 
from  this  rule  of  lining  out  the 
drain  may  be  required,  and  the 
judgement  of  the  drainer  is  to  be 
shown  in  adapting  the  course  of 
his  drain  to  the  change  of  cir- 
cumstances. 

"  Sometimes  in  a  hollow  piece 
of  ground  feeders  may  reach  the 
descent,  as  in  fig.  9,  and  the 
water  may  be  forced  upwards  by 
the  pressure  from  each  side  of 


OPERATIONS    OF   DRAINING. 


107 


the  hollow,  and  thus  form  a  swamp  from  A  to  B.  It  may 
not  be  necessary  here  to  cut  a  trench  on  each  side  along 
the  Hue  of  wetness  at  A  and  B  ;  a  single  trench,  C,  cut 
in  the  hollow,  and  giving  egress  to  the  water,  may  relieve 
the  pressure  and  remove  the  swamp. 

"  Sometimes,  upon  a  sloping  surface,  one  pervious  stra- 
tum, in  which  the  water  percolates,  may  produce  more 
than  one  line  of  springs,  as  at  B  and  A  in  fig.  10.  Here 
a  single  drain,  cut  at  B,  will  remove  the  cause  of  wetness 
at  both  swamps,  without  the  necessity  of  the  drain  at  A. 

"  And,  in  practice,  it  is  well  to  mark  the  effects  of  a 
drain  cut  in  the  higher  part  of  the  slope  to  be  drained,  for 
these  effects  often  extend  further  than  might  be  anticipated, 
removing  springs,  oozings,  or  bursts  at  a  great  distance. 


108  OPERATIONS   OF  DRAINING. 

"  On  the  other  hand,  a  single  swamp,  as  from  B  to  A, 
fig.  11,  may  be  produced,  and  yet  one  drain  at  B  may 
be  insufficient  to  remove  it.  In  this  case,  the  water  being 
brought  to  the  surface  by  more  than  one  channel,  it  is 
necessary  to  form  several  drains  to  reach  the  several  beds 
in  which  the  water  is  contained,  as  at  B,  C,  and  D. 

''  These  examples  will  show,  that  one  rule,  with  re- 
spect to  the  laying  out  of  drains,  is  not  apphcable  to  all 
cases,  but  that  the  drainer  should  adapt  his  remedy  as 
much  as  possible  to  the  cause  of  injury.  One  object, 
however,  to  be  aimed  at  in  all  cases  of  under-draining,  is 
to  reach  the  bed,  channel,  or  reservoir,  in  which  the  wa- 
ter is  contained. 

"Before  beginning  to  drain  a  field  or  tract  of  ground, 
it  is  frequently  well  to  ascertain,  by  examination,  the  na- 
ture of  the  substances  to  be  dug  through. 

"  At  the  upper  part,  where  the  wet  tract  to  be  drained 
appears,  or  between  the  wet  and  the  dry,  let  a  few  pits 
be  dug.  The  place  of  each  pit  is  to  be  marked  out  near- 
ly in  the  direction  of  the  proposed  line  of  drain,  six  feet 
long  by  three  in  width,  in  which  space  one  man,  and,  if 
required,  two,  can  work.  Let  the  ^arth  be  thrown  out 
to  the  lower  side,  and  to  such  a  distance  from  the  edge 
of  the  pit  as  not  to  press  upon  and  break  down  the  sides. 
Let  these  pits  be  cast  out  to  the  depth  of  five  or  six  feet, 
or  more  if  necessary,  so  that  w^e  may  reach,  if  possible, 
the  porous  beds  in  which  the  water  is  contained.  Should 
we  find  no  water,  then  let  us  apply  a  boring-rod,  in  order 
to  ascertain  at  what  depth  the  porous  substance  hes  in 
which  the  water  is  contained. 

"  Sometimes  water  will  not  be  found  until  we  come  to 
a  great  depth.  It  may  be  so  deep  that  we  cannot  reach 
it  by  any  drain,  or  even  by  boring  with  the  auger.  In 
this  case,  we  are  saved  the  labor  of  making  the  drain  un- 
necessarily deep.  Sometimes  we  shall  proceed  to  a  con- 
siderable depth  without  finding  any  appearance  of  water, 
when,  all  at  once,  by  breaking  through  some  thin  stratum 
we  shall  reach  it.  The  water  is  frequently  seen,  in  this 
case,  to  boil  up  like  a  fountain,  and  this  affords  the  assu- 
rance that  we  shall  succeed  in  our  object. 


OPERATIONS    OF   DRAINING.  109 

''  This  species  of  preparatory  examination,  by  means 
of  pitSj  is  therefore,  in  many  cases,  useful.  It  affords 
the  means  of  judging  of  the  proper  depth  and  dimensions 
of  which  the  drain  shall  be  formed  ;  it  prevents  the  com- 
mitting of  errors  in  the  laying  out  of  the  lines  of  drains  ; 
and  enables  the  drainer  to  enter  into  contracts  with  his 
workmen  with  precision. 

"  When  we  have  thus,  by  sinking  pits  in  various  parts 
of  our  intended  hues,  obtained  an  idea  of  the  nature  of 
the  ground,  of  the  substances  to  be  dug  through,  and  of 
the  depth  of  the  water,  we  mark  our  lines  of  drains  upon 
the  ground. 

"  This  may  be  done  by  pins,  or  by  a  plough  drawing 
a  furrow  along  the  intended  line. 

"It  is  at  this  time  very  convenient  to  make  a  hand- 
sketch  of  the  piece  of  ground  to  be  drained,  marking  each 
line  as  it  is  laid  off  in  the  field,  and  noting  the  depth  and 
direction  in  which  the  water  is  to  run. 

"  The  hues  being  marked  off  in  the  manner  described, 
these  are  to  form  the  upper  edges  of  the  drains. 

"  The  width  of  the  drain  at  the  top  depends  upon  its 
depth,  it  being  usual,  except  in  the  case  of  very  hard 
and  tenacious  substances,  to  make  it  slope  from  the  top 
to  the  bottom.  Thus,  if  it  be  6  feet  deep,  and  from 
18  inches  to  2  feet  wide  at  bottom,  it  may  be  2|  feet 
wide  at  top. 

"  But  it  is  often  impracticable  to  reach  these  substances 
with  a  drain  of  common  depth.  In  this  case  apertures 
may  be  formed  at  the  bottom  of  the  drain,  by  boring  or 
sinking  down  at  the  proper  distances,  until  the  pervious 
bed  in  which  the  water  is  contained  is  reached.  By 
this  means  the  water  will  be  allowed  to  flow  up  from  be- 
low into  the  cavity  of  the  drain,  and  so  will  be  carried 
away. 

"  The  application  of  this  principle  had  been  familiar 
from  the  remotest  times  in  the  sinking  of  wells.  But  it 
was  not  till  after  the  middle  of  the  last  century  that  the 
same  principle  was  applied  to  the  draining  of  lands.  This 
was  done  by  Mr.  Elkington,  of  Warwickshire,  who  em- 
ployed the  auger  and  the  boring-rod  for  the  purpose  of 
10  XV. 


no 


OPERATIONS   OF  DRAINING. 


reaching  the  channels  and  reservohs  below  the  surface, 
when  an  ordinary  drain  could  not  reach  them. 

''  The  auger  employed  for  this  purpose  is  similar  to  a 
carpenter's  wimble.  It  may  be  from  four  to  five  inches  in 
diameter.  Square  iron  rods  are  made  to  be  screwed  into 
each  other,  so  that  the  length  of  the  hne  of  rods  may  be 
increased  in  proportion  as  the  auger  penetrates  the  ground. 
In  fig.  12,  A  is  the  auger,  B  one  of  the  rods,  C  a  key 
for  turning  it  round  and  working  it,  D  another  key  for 
holding  the  rods  when  they  are  to  be  unscrewed  by  means 
of  the  key  C . 

Fig.  13. 


f  « 


Fig.  12. 


3 


''  This  instrument  may  frequently  be  found  useful  when 
the  channels  and  reservoirs  can  be  reached  in  this  man- 
ner. The  apertures  are  formed  by  the  auger  in  the  bot- 
tom of  the  drain.  When  the  water  is  reached,  it  will 
spring  up  into  the  drain,  in  the  same  manner  as  water  in 
the  bottom  of  a  well.  It  is  not  necessary  to  employ  any 
artificial  means  for  keeping  the  apertures  open,  as  the 
flow  of  the  water  will  suffice  to  maintain  for  itself  a  pas- 
sage. 

"  Sometimes,  in  place  of  an  auger-hole,  wells  are  sunk 


OPERATIONS   OF  DRAINING.  Ill 

at  intervals  along  the  side  of  the  drain,  and  filled  with 
stones  in  the  manner  shown  in  fig.  13. 

"  In  all  cases  of  under-draining,  the  drains  should  be 
made  of  sufficient  dimensions.  They  should  not  be  less 
than  4  feet  deep,  even  when  the  pervious  stratum  lies  a 
less  depth  ;  and  the  reason  is,  that  they  may  be  more 
permanent,  and  better  defended  from  injury,  from  mud 
and  sand  carried  down  by  surface-water.  It  is  not  neces- 
sary that  they  be  made  deeper  than  4  feet  when  that  is 
found  to  be  sufficient  ;  but  they  must  be  carried,  if  neces- 
sary, to  the  depth  of  6  feet,  or  sometimes  of  7  feet, 
though  the  expense  and  difficulty  of  executing  the  work 
increase,  in  a  great  proportion,  as  the  dimensions  of  the 
drain  increase. 

"  The  importance,  in  this  species  of  draining,  of  pro- 
ceeding upon  principles  in  laying  out  the  lines  of  drains, 
instead  of  acting  at  random,  as  so  many  do,  cannot  be  too 
strongly  impressed  upon  the  attention  of  the  drainer. 
Every  drain,  however  rudely  devised,  and  imperfectly 
executed,  may  do  some  good.  But  one  drain  well  laid 
out,  and  of  the  required  dimensions,  may  perform  a  pur- 
pose which  no  multiplication  of  minor  and  insufficient 
drains  can  effect.  These  may  lessen  the  effects  of  wet- 
ness, but  the  other  is  designed  to  remove  the  causes  of 
it ;  and  the  more  perfect  practice  will  usually  be  found, 
in  the  end,  to  be  the  most  economical  as  well  as  the  most 
efficient. 

"  The  drains  of  the  larger  class  described,  it  will  be 
seen,  are  intended  solely  for  the  removal  of  water  which 
is  contained  in  reservoirs  and  channels  below  the  surface. 
They  do  not  supersede  the  necessity  of  carrying  away 
water  which  is  at  or  near  the  surface.  From  this  latter 
cause,  an  equal  or  greater  injury  may  arise,  and  must  be 
met  by  a  corresponding  remedy." — Professor  Low'^s  Ele- 
ments of  Agriculture. 

Under-drains,  for  the  want  of  stones  or  tiles,  are  some- 
times constructed  of  other  materials,  as  boards,  plank, 
brush,  straw,  turf,  &c.  We  have  tried  them  all.  They 
serve  a  temporary  purpose,  and  may  be  resorted  to  as 
matters  of  necessity.     But  we  would  not  advise  their  use 


112  PRINCIPLES    OF  TILLAGE. 

on  the  score  of  economy.  In  draining  the  rule  has  pecu- 
Har  force,  that  ivhat  is  done  should  be  well  done — be 
the  object  either  economy,  or  permanent  utihty. 

We  repeat — draining  is  comparatively  a  new  branch 
of  improvement  with  us.  Its  principles  are  httle  under- 
stood, and  its  advantages  but  illy  appreciated  ;  and  we 
are  not  likely  to  learn  much  in  either  except  from  ex- 
perience. When  we  are  convinced  of  its  value,  we  shall 
persevere  in  it,  notwithstanding  repeated  disappointments, 
till  we  succeed  in  managing  it  upon  correct  principles. 
The  sooner  we  begin,  therefore,  the  more  rapid  will  be 
our  progress  and  the  greater  the  advantages. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 


PRINCIPLES    OF    tillage. 


When  thorough  draining  has  been  effected,  upon  lands 
to  be  benefited  thereby,  there  is  another  operation  which 
is  calculated  to  aid  in  the  efficiency  of  manures,  and  in 
the  increase  of  farm-products.  This  is  good  tillage — a 
perfect  pulverization  of  the  soil,  and  the  keeping  it  free 
from  weeds,  which  retard  the  growth  of  the  crop,  and 
rob  it  of  its  food.  Good  tillage  is  important,  not  only  as 
it  serves  to  exterminate  weeds,  to  facilitate  the  digestion 
of  vegetable  food,  and  to  mix  and  incorporate  this  food 
with  earthy  matters, — but  as  it  breaks  and  mellows  the 
soil,  and  enables  the  roots  of  plants  to  range  freely  in 
search  of  this  food. 

Every  farmer  must  have  observed,  that  when  tillage 
has  been  but  imperfectly  performed,  as  is  sometimes  seen 
about  stumps  and  rocks,  and  near  fences,  the  crop  is 
comparatively  feeble  and  light.  This  is  not  owing  to  the 
poverty  of  the  soil,  because  the  plough,  as  it  rises  to  the 
surface  in  these  places,  deposits  and  accumulates  there  the 
finest  and  best  mould  of  the  field.  The  feebleness  of 
the  grain  arises  from  the  imperfect  tillage  which  these 
spots  receive. 


PRINCIPLES    OF   TILLAGE.  113 

As  we  have  before  observed,  the  atmosphere  and  the 
rains  are  not  only  charged  with  the  elements  of  fertility, 
but  they  are  indispensable  agents,  together  with  heat,  in 
preparing  the  vegetable  food  deposited  in  the  soil.  Com- 
plete pulverization,  therefore,  is  essential  to  the  full  de- 
velopement  of  their  enriching  properties.  They  should 
not  only  be  permitted  to  enter,  but  to  circulate  in  the  soil. 
Stagnant  air  and  stagnant  water  soon  become  hurtful  to 
plants  as  well  as  to  animals. 

The  old  practice  of  carrying  the  main  furrows  to  the 
extremity  of  the  field,  and  of  dispensing  with  head-lands, 
is  a  bad  and  slovenly  one,  and  ought  to  be  every  where 
exploded,  because,  under  this  practice,  the  head-lands  can 
only  be  imperfectly  worked.  The  cut-and-cover  prac- 
tice is  still  worse,  as  it  leaves  one  half,  and  sometimes 
two  thirds  of  the  soil,  undisturbed  by  the  plough.  We 
remember  well,  when  we  followed  the  plough  in  our  boy- 
hood, and  knew  nothing  of  the  philosophy  of  ploughing, 
our  aim  was,  to  go  over  much  ground,  and  show  a  plough- 
ed surface,  regarding  the  complete  breaking  up  of  the  soil 
as  of  minor  importance.  There  will  always  be  a  great 
many  boys  at  the  plough,  until  the  importance  of  good 
ploughing  is  well  understood.  Good  ploughing  consists 
in  turning  and  breaking  every  inch  of  the  soil  to  the  re- 
quired depth  ;  and  good  tillage  requires  that  the  harrow 
and  roller  should  finish,  if  the  plough  has  failed  to  effect, 
a  complete  pulverization.  A  green  sward  becomes  pul- 
verulent as  the  roots  of  the  grasses  decay,  and  is  best 
without  a  second  furrow,  because  this  turns  again  to  the 
surface,  to  the  wasting  influence  of  the  sun  and  winds, 
the  vegetable  matters  buried  by  the  first  ploughing,  and 
which,  if  left  buried,  would  contribute  largely  to  the  sus- 
tenance of  the  crop.  As  the  roots  of  the  grasses  decay, 
the  soil  becomes  loose  and  porous,  and  is  permeable  to 
moisture,  air,  and  heat.  Hence  the  advantage  of  fallow 
crops  over  naked  fallows,  and  of  depositing  seeds  upon 
the  top  of  a  clover  ley ;  the  sod  then  imparts  fertility  to 
the  soil,  while  it  enables  it  to  derive  important  advantages 
from  the  co-operation  of  external  agents. 

Good  tillage  requires  that,  when  practicable,  as  in  the 
10* 


114  PRINCIPLES    OF  TILLAGE. 

culture  of  drilled  and  hoed  crops,  the  surface  soil  should 
be  kept  clean  while  the  crop  is  growing,  for  the  same  rea- 
son that  the  soil  is  required  to  be  made  so  before  depos- 
iting the  seed  ;  viz. ,  to  facilitate  the  decomposition  of  the 
vegetable  food,  to  stimulate  the  organs  of  the  plants,  and 
increase  the  growth  and  product  of  the  crop.  There  is 
no  better  expedient  for  preventing  the  evils  of  drought 
upon  a  soil,  than  that  of  keeping  the  surface  mellow  and 
clean.  Atmospheric  air  and  dew,  always  charged  with 
the  food  of  plants,  penetrate  such  a  surface  as  into  a 
sponge,  and  impart  to  the  roots  of  plants  both  aliment 
and  stimuli.  Dews  fall  upon  a  hard  surface,  and  are 
evaporated  by  the  first  rays  of  the  morning  sun  ;  but  they 
penetrate  a  loose  surface,  and  moisten  and  fructify  it. 
Hence  the  high  repute  of  drill  husbandry,  which  enables 
the  cultivator  to  keep  his  crops  clean,  and  the  surface  of 
his  soil  mellow  and  open. 

Good  tillage  has  reference  to  depth,  as  well  as  quality 
of  tilth.  "  There  are  many  plants,  the  roots  of  which 
are  found  from  fifteen  to  twenty,  and  even  thirty  feet  un- 
der ground — sainfoin  and  lucerne,  for  instance  ;  even  red 
clover  will  strike  down  three  feet  if  the  soil  be  a  fertile 
loam  ;  and  some  of  our  commonest  vegetables,  if  it  be  a 
friable  or  sandy,  push  their  tap  roots  to  about  the  same 
depth.  The  roots  of  wheat  will  penetrate  as  far  as  eight 
inches  into  the  earth  ;  and  when  sown  on  the  crowns  of 
ridges,  they  have  been  found  at  the  depth  of  twelve.  We 
may  therefore  assume  the  depth  of  twelve  inches  as  the 
utmost  vegetative  Hmit  of  corn  land.  Provided  the  soil 
be  open  and  fertile,  the  nearer  its  depth  approaches  to 
tw^elve  inches,  the  greater  number  of  plants  may  it  there- 
fore be  supposed  capable  of  furnishing  with  support." — 
British  Husbandry,  vol.  ii.  pp.  49,  50. 

nSoils  should  be  ploughed  as  deep  as  the  substratum 
will  admit,  at  least  once  in  a  course  of  crops,  if  this  can 
be  reached  with  the  force  of  an  ordinary  team  ;  and  when 
the  surface  soil  is  superficial,  it  should  be  deepened,  as 
fast  as  fertility  can  be  imparted,  by  turning  up,  at  suitable 
intervals,  some  portion  of  the  subsoil.      The  atmosphere 


PRINCIPLES    OF   TILLAGE.  115 

imparts  to  this  apparent  inert  earth,  more  or  less  of  the 
elements  of  fertility. 

We  have  a  good  illustration  of  the  advantages  of  artifi- 
cially, but  gradually,  deepening  the  soil,  in  the  practice 
of  Baron  Von  Voght,  an  eminent  German  agriculturist, 
who  in  a  few  years  transformed  a  thin,  unproductive  soil 
into  one  of  great  depth  and  fertility. 

In  1813,  the  Baron  undertook  to  improve  the  condi- 
tion of  an  estate  denominated  Flottbeck,  as  a  pattern 
farm,  and  to  make  it  an  experimental  farm  for  the  north 
of  Germany.  In  1829,  he  had  carried  his  improvements 
to  so  high  a  state  of  excellence,  that  he  published,  for  the 
benefit  of  the  visiters  who  thronged  to  see  him,  a  pam- 
phlet, developing  the  principles,  by  the  adoption  of  which, 
his  soil,  naturally  bad,  had  been  raised  to  a  state  of  high 
productiveness.  It  is  from  a  portion  of  this  pamphlet, 
for  we  have  not  seen  the  whole  of  it,  that  we  collate  the 
following  facts. 

The  soil  of  Flottbeck  is  a  mixture  of  sand  and  clay. 
Its  original  depth  of  krume  (mould)  was  only  three  inch- 
es ;  the  surface  was  uneven,  and  the  soil  wet,  water  stand- 
ing for  a  long  time,  and  manure  ineffectual  on  account  of 
the  consequent  low  temperature.  Fields  could  not  be 
sown,  owing  to  quagmires,  often  till  June.  The  winter 
crops  were  full  of  tares  and  perennial  weeds  ;  summer 
crops  abounded  in  wild  radish  and  mustard,  the  clover 
with  wild  chamomile,  sorrel,  &c.,  and  the  fields  with 
dog's  grass,  and  other  noxious  plants.  How  many  of 
our  farms  now  form  a  counterpart  to  this  description  of 
Flottbeck  ! 

The  means  of  improving  which  the  Baron  instituted  to 
raise  the  condition,  and  increase  the  fertility  of  this  farm, 
consisted  principally  in — 

1.  LeveUing  the  surface,  and  thorough  drainage. 

2.  Deepening  the  krume,  or  soil,  at  least  one  inch  a 
year,  till  he  had  gained  a  depth  of  fourteen  inches — this 
depth  being  requisite,  in  his  opinion,  for  the  roots  of  plants 
to  penetrate,  and  as  a  reservoir  for  moisture,  to  supply  the 
crop  in  time  of  dry  weather.  To  obtain  this  depth,  trench 
ploughing  [rayolt)  was  resorted  to  when  necessary. 


116  PRINCIPLES    OF  TILLAGE. 

3.  Increasing  the  fertility  with  the  increasing  depth  of 
the  soil,  by  ploughing  in  green  crops,  and  by  husbanding 
and  judiciously  applying  manure — the  latter  applied  to 
the  potato  and  rape  crops,  and  before  it  had  become  ex- 
hausted by  fermentation. 

4.  Throwing  the  land  into  one-bout  ridges  in  autumn, 
(it  being  generally  flat  and  rather  stiff*,)  and  cleaning  the 
intermediate  furrows  with  a  double  mouldboard  plough. 
This  operation  enriched  the  soil  by  atmospheric  influence, 
broke  down  its  stubbornness,  and  laid  it  dry,  so  that  the 
spring  operations  could  be  commenced  two  or  three 
weeks  earlier  than  formerly. 

5.  Thorough  pulverization  preparatory  to  putting  in 
seeds,  and  giving  these  only  a  superficial  covering  of 
earth. 

6.  Graduating,  by  a  scale,  which  the  Baron's  long  ob- 
servation and  numerous  experiments  had  enabled  him  to 
contrive,  the  manure  to  be  applied,  to  the  precise  de- 
mands of  the  soil  and  the  crop — thus  receiving  the  whole 
benefit  which  it  was  capable  of  imparting,  without  loss  by 
excess. 

7.  A  judicious  rotation — in  which  green  crops  often 
intervened.  The  rotation  was  one  of  six  years,  as  the 
clover,  which  he  observes  forms  the  basis  of  agriculture, 
cannot  return  oftener.  The  intermediate  crops  were 
wheat,  oats,  mixed  fodder,  barley,  rye,  potatoes,  vetches, 
rape,  &c.,  the  climate  of  Germany  not  admitting  the  cul- 
ture of  Indian  corn. 

In  1829,  Flottbeck  exhibited  a  far  different  appearance 
from  what  it  did  in  1813.  All  the  fields  showed  a  level 
surface — the  krume  or  mould  had  every  where  a  depth 
of  14  inches.  The  fields  were  rendered  dry  by  ditches, 
and  the  under-water  was  carried  off*  by  27  under-drains — 
no  noxious  plants  infested  the  ground,  save  the  dog's 
grass,  when  the  clover  happened  to  be  frozen  out — and 
the  produce  was  so  much  increased,  that  the  same  area, 
which,  in  1813,  would  yield  only  14  bushels  rye,  in  1829 
was  found  to  produce  24  bushels  of  wheat. 

We  think  there  is  much  in  Baron  Von  Voght's  prac- 
tice that  commends  itself  to  the  notice  of  our  farmers. 


PRINCIPLES   OF  TILLAGE.  117 

The  means  which  he  employed  are  withm  our  reach,  and 
the  advantages  of  using  them  manifest.  The  chmate  of 
Germany  is  not  very  dissimilar  to  ours,  save  that  ours  is 
rather  the  most  mild. 

That  our  readers  may  understand  the  principles  upon 
which  the  improvements  at  Flottbeck  were  based,  we 
subjoin  them  in  the  Baron's  own  words. 

"  The  few  general  principles  adopted  here  with  all 
kinds  of  produce,  are  the  fruit  of  thirteen  years'  experi- 
ence, and  several  thousand  experiments. 

"1.  The  soil  must  have  11.280  to  14.000  inches  of 
krume,  in  order  to  admit  of  the  roots  penetrating  into  the 
ground  ;  that  in  wet  weather,  the  water,  which  in  a  flat 
soil  might  drown  the  crops,  may  be  absorbed,  and  formed 
in  the  deep  into  a  reservoir,  from  which  the  extremities 
of  the  roots  may  imbibe  a  nourishing  moisture,  impregna- 
ted with  carbonic  gas,  which  it  draws  from  the  manure 
fermenting  in  the  earth.  *" 

"  The  krume  must  have  a  depth  of  14.000  inches,  in 
order  that  the  exhausted  surface,  being  buried  at  a  greater 
depth,  may  reimbibe  the  lost  moisture. 

''  This  I  obtained,  by  having  the  land  ploughed  in  au- 
tumn, to  a  depth  of  about  5.640  to  7.520  inches,  then 
having  it  finely  harrowed,  and  finally  rayolt  it  with  two 
ploughs,  one  behind  the  other,  (the  last  with  four  ani- 
mals ;)  this  requires,  of  course,  swing  ploughs,  as  it  is 
absolutely  necessary  to  plough  before  rayoled. 

"  The  latter  operation  is  usually  performed  by  oxen. 

"2.  In  autumn  all  ditches  must  be  opened,  and  all 
the  drains  examined,  so  that  the  water  may  not  be  stopped 
in  any  place. 

"  3.  The  rayolt  lands  must  be  laid  in  high  furrows, 
by  means  of  ploughing,  always  two  furrows  together,  af- 
ter the  rayoled  and  furrowing,  so  as  to  make  a  water-fur- 

*  "  Thaer  mentions  the  following  proportion  of  the  value  of  the  soil, 
with  a  flat  and  deep  mould.  '  If,'  says  he,  '  the  soil,  with  a  mould 
of  three  inches,  is  worth  38,  that  possessed  of  five  inches  of  mould 
will  be  worth  50  ;  that  of  8,  62  ;  and  that  of  11,  74  ;'  and  this  en- 
tirely agrees  with  my  experience  at  Flottbeck.  Should  we  then  hesi- 
tate to  spend  a  few  years,  and  some  manure,  thus  permanently  to 
enhance  the  value  of  our  fields  ?" 


118  PRINCIPLES   OF  TILLAGE. 

row  at  every  16.920  inches,  which  is  deepened  and 
cleaned  by  means  of  a  double  struckbrett,  [mouldboards 
fixed  to  the  plough,]  with  a  clayey  soil  ;  this  operation 
is  indispensable. 

"  The  advantage  of  this  mode  of  treatment  is,  that  it 
keeps  the  soil  dry,  and  renders  it  capable  of  being  culti- 
vated three  weeks  sooner  than  other  shallow  land  ;  that  it 
avoids  stiffness,  and,  on  the  contrary,  the  high  ridges,  being 
frozen  through  in  the  winter,  are  found  very  mellow  in 
the  spring.  I  cannot  deny  that  in  autumn  this  requires 
four  kinds  of  ploughs,  (the  two  last  of  which  may  certainly 
be  considered  as  only  half  kinds  of  ploughs,)  instead  of  one 
kind,  generally  used  on  large  farms.  Moreover,  this  depth 
of  mould  cannot  be  obtained  in  less  than  ten  years,  when, 
at  the  same  time,  the  disadvantage  of  an  inferior  subsoil 
can  be  repaired  by  manure,  which  will  add  about  one 
inch  of  mould  in  a  year — a  method  quite  impossible  on 
large  farms,  and  on  small  ones  attainable  only  by  a  pro- 
prietor, and  never  by  a  farmer. 

"  These  high  furrows  are  separated  in  the  spring  with 
the  four-horse  split  plough  :  if  the  land  is  quite  clean,  it 
may,  after  being  harrowed  in  the  manner  which  will  be 
mentioned  hereafter,  be  immediately  sown  ;  but  if  it  is 
not,  it  is  hooked  [harrowed]  crosswise. 

"4.  All  the  land  which  is  not  rayolt  [trench-ploughed] 
— because  there  remains  from  the  preceding  harvest  too 
much  manure  on  the  surface,  which,  if  the  next  crop 
should  want  it.)  must  not  be  removed  too  far,  is,  if  it  bears 
no  manure  crop,  ploughed  in  autumn,  first  shallow,  then 
deep,  and  lastly  laid  in  high  furrows.  In  spring,  in  which 
there  is  as  little  ploughing  as  possible,  it  is,  after  the  split- 
ting, according  to  the  necessity  of  the  crop  and  soil,  first 
harrowed,  and  then  hooked  crosswise,  or  only  harrowed 
in  the  manner  prescribed. 

"5.  It  is  a  principal  maxim  to  sow  a  green  crop  for 
ploughing  in,  in  the  rape-seed  stubble,  as  well  as  in  the 
corn  stubble,  where  no  clover  has  been  sown.  In  August, 
I  use  for  this  purpose  rape-seed  ;  in  the  beginning  of  Sep- 
tember, turnips  ;  from  the  middle  of  September  to  the 
middle  of  October,  rye  ;  then  there  is  but  one  ploughing 


PRINCIPLES    OF  TILLAGE.  119 

in   autumn,   a   method    which    I    recommend    on   large 
farms. 

''  The  manure  crop  is  in  the  spring  shallowly  rayoh 
in,  and  is  equal  in  its  effects  to  3.914  to  5.811  loads 
of  manure  per  acre. 

"6.  One  observation  which  leads  to  the  most  impor- 
tant results,  was  the  certain  conviction,  that  it  is  the  vital 
power  of  plants,  which,  by  the  incomprehensible  faculty 
of  decomposition  and  assimilation,  by  means  of  their 
leaves  and  stalks,  constantly  imbibe  an  incredible  quanti- 
ty of  substances,  in  the  shape  of  gases  and  manures,  and 
convert  them  into  their  own  elements,  rejecting  what 
they  do  not  want,  changing  what  they  have  received  into 
a  new  body,  and  so  continuing  until  they  have  formed 
their  blossoms  ;  that  the  root,  which  till  then  keeps  grow- 
ing and  oozing  out  moisture,  only  begins  when  its  growth 
is  perfected  powerfully  to  decompose  that  which  surrounds 
it,  and  alone  supports  the  fruit,  whilst  the  leaves  and  stalks 
are  fading  ;  that  the  vital  point  of  the  plant  has  its  seat 
exactly  in  the  centre  of  the  germ,  from  which  it  forces 
the  root  into  the  earth,  and  the  stalk  upwards  ;  that  every 
thing  depends,  in  the  first  growth  of  the  plant,  on  keeping 
this  point  in  health  and  activity  ;  that  this  should  be  done 
in  sowing, 

"  1st.  When  the  surface  is  as  much  as  possible  pulver- 
ized, in  order  that  the  seed-corn  or  potato-shoot  should 
be  surrounded  by,  or  rather  laid  on  earth  finely  divided, 
in  which  the  fibres  of  the  root  may  quickly  shoot,  and 
where  air,  moisture,  and  warmth  may  operate  with  facility. 

"  2d.  When  the  shoot,  lying  on  such  a  pulverized  sur- 
face, is  covered  only  a  couple  of  lines,  in  order  that 
light,  air,  warmth,  dew,  and  other  atmospheric  moistures 
may  immediately  excite  the  vitality  in  this  point,  and 
thereby  promote  the  developement  of  the  germ  and  pro- 
cure nourishment  to  the  first  leaf. 

"  I  refer,  with  regard  to  this,  especially,  to  the  speci- 
mens of  dried  plants  kept  ready  for  the  inspection  of  the 
visiters,  which  so  strikingly  show  what  difterence  there  is 
in  the  vital  germ  lying  on  the  surface,  where  roots  and 
leaves    immediately,  numerously,  and   powerfully  shoot 


120  PRINCIPLES   OF  TILLAGE. 

from  one  point,  and  the  weakened  vital  germ,  which,  ly- 
ing at  the  depth  of  1.680  inches,  shoots  forth  few  roots, 
but  a  thin  tube,  which  rises  as  far  as  the  surface,  where 
the  knot  is  formed,  whence  the  weakened  germ  pushes 
forth  a  single  and  sickly  plant. 

"  The  result  of  this  observation  was,  that  w^e  took 
every  possible  pains  to  give  the  surface,  to  a  depth  of  from 
1.880  to  2.820  inches,  the  necessary  state  of  pulveriza- 
tion, to  divide  the  thickly-sown  seed  equally  upon  it,  and 
to  give  it  as  thin  a  covering  of  the  pulverized  soil  as  pos- 
sible. But  for  this  we  were  entirely  without  imple- 
ments. 

"  The  grubber,  indeed,  gave  looseness  to  the  surface, 
but  did  not  destroy  the  small  clods.  The  roller  pressed 
the  soil  too  firmly,  and,  if  it  happened  to  rain,  a  fresh  pro- 
cess became  necessary.  The  usual  harrow,  with  teeth 
6.580  inches  apart,  drew,  in  a  ground  previously  har- 
rowed, lines  in  which  seed  sown  by  the  best  sow^er  would 
fall,  and  then  stand  too  thickly,  while  a  surface  of  2.280 
inches  was  left  between  these  hues,  which  contained  few 
plants,  but  became  a  nursery  for  weeds. 

"  Then  it  occurred  to  us,  (after  the  usual  grubbing  and 
harrowing,)  to  pass  with  the  iron  Mecklenburgh  harrow 
reversed,  the  upper  side  of  it  being  flat  upon  the  surface, 
till  all  the  small  clods  were  pressed  into  a  powder  ;  then 
I  had  harrows  made,  the  teeth  of  which  are  only  from 
1.410  to  1.880  inches  wide  apart,  and  in  the  Flemish 
fashion,  placed  in  a  slanting  angle.  With  these  w^e  passed 
sharply  over  this  finely-pressed  soil,  with  the  horse  fas- 
tened to  the  middle,  and  afterwards  to  one  corner,  after 
which  we  sowed.  The  corn  came  to  lie  in  lines  1.410 
inches  apart,  and  w^as  harrowed  in  crosswise,  with  the 
drag  teeth  of  the  close  harrow,*  and  by  this  means  the 
seed  was  slightly  covered,  and  not  again  displaced. 

"  By  this  mode  of  cultivation,  it  was  found  that  every 
germ  immediately  shot  forth  strong  roots  and  several  stems 
at  once  ;  and  an  experience  of  several  years  has  shown 
an  increase  of  produce  of  from  20  to  30  per  cent,  occa- 

*  With  the  teeth  slanting  forward.  They  are  called  drags  when 
the  teeth  slant  backwards. 


PRINCIPLES   OF  TILLAGE.  121 

sioned  by  it,  as  we  continued  to  cultivate  a  piece  of  ground 
next  to  it  in  the  usual  manner. 

''7.  I  must  further  mention,  as  the  last,  but  not  less 
important  principle  and  cause  of  success,  that  each  of  the 
manured  fields  has  been  brought  to  that  point  of  fertility 
in  which  it  can  yield  the  greatest  produce  ;  so  that  with 
less  manure,  it  would  not  yield  its  full  produce,  and  more 
manure  would  cause  the  crops  to  lie  down,  even  if  the 
year  was  not  wet.  The  difficulty  of  being  able  to  fix 
this  point,  for  every  field  and  kind  of  crop,  with  certainty, 
was  removed  by  the  now  perfected  geometrical  method 
by  which,  with  the  help  of  a  scale  formed  on  twenty  years' 
experience,  the  degree  of  productiveness  may  be  marked, 
in  which  the  field  has  been  left  in  the  last  crops  ;  i.  e., 
seldom  below  100  degrees,  which  denotes  a  field  capable 
of  yielding  24.02  bushels  of  wheat  per  acre,  and  below 
which  it  is  not  advisable  to  let  a  field  sink." 

Jethro  Tull  and  his  disciples  maintained,  that  the  great 
secret  of  inducing  fertihty,  consisted  in  minutely  dividing 
and  pulverizing  the  soil  by  culture  ;  and  John  Taylor, 
the  Arator  of  Virginia,  and  an  excellent  practical  as  well 
as  scientific  farmer,  considered  the  atmosphere  as  the 
great  store-house  for  vegetable  food,  where  it  exists  in  a 
gaseous  form.  The  good  tillage  we  advocate  embraces 
all  the  advantages  of  Tull's  and  Taylor's  theories,  with- 
out lessening  the  importance  which  we  attach  to  barn-yard 
manure. 

The  deep  ploughing  of  dry  land,  or  the  breaking  up 
and  stirring  of  the  subsoil,  promotes  fertility,  by  increas- 
ing the  power  of  the  land  to  absorb  water  by  cohesive 
attraction.  ''  The  power  of  soils  to  absorb  water  from 
air,"  says  Davy,  ''  is  much  connected  with  fertihty.  This 
power  depends  in  a  great  measure  upon  the  state  of  di- 
vision of  its  parts  ;  the  more  divided  they  are,  the  greater 
their  absorbent  power.  When  this  power  is  great,  the 
plant  is  supplied  with  moisture  in  dry  seasons  ;  and  the 
effect  of  evaporation  in  the  day  is  counteracted  by  the 
absorption  of  aqueous  vapors  from  the  atmosphere,  by 
the  interior  parts  of  the  soil,  during  the  day,  and  by  both 
the  exterior  and  interior  during  the  night."     The  soil  im- 

11  XV. 


122  PRINCIPLES    OF  TILLAGE. 

bibes  heat  earlier  in  the  spring,  and  retains  it  later  in  au- 
tumn, in  proportion  as  it  is  dry  and  deep, — a  matter  of 
high  consideration  in  cold  chraates,  where  the  length  of 
the  summer  scarcely  suffices  to  mature  the  crops.  The 
quality  and  dryness  being  the  same,  a  soil  is  fertile  and 
durable  nearly  in  proportion  to  the  depth  of  the  tillage 
which  it  receives  ;  six  inches  giving  nearly  double  the 
pasture  for  plants  that  a  three-inch  stratum  does — and  a 
twelve-inch  tilth  greatly  exceeding  in  productiveness  one 
of  only  six  inches.  Von  Thaer  calculates  this  difference 
in  proportionate  degrees  in  lands  which  contain  a  vegeta- 
tive stratum  of  soil  of  four,  six,  eight,  and  twelve  inches 
in  depth,  provided,  of  course,  that  it  be  all  of  equal  qual- 
ity. If,  therefore,  each  seed  were  to  produce  a  plant, 
it  would  follow  that  ground  which  contains  eight  inches 
of  depth  of  fertile  mould,  might  be  sown  with  double  the 
quantity  of  that  which  consists  of  only  four  inches.  He, 
however,  admits,  that  this  principle  cannot  be  carried  to 
that  extent,  because  the  action  of  the  atmosphere  must 
ever  afford  that  superiority  to  the  surface,  that  a  cubic 
foot  of  mould,  if  divided  into  two  square  feet,  will  always 
produce  a  greater  number  of  plants  than  if  the  seed  were 
sown  upon  one  foot  superficial  ;  but  he  assumes  the  value 
of  the  land  to  be  increased,  in  the  proportion  of  eight  per 
cent.,  for  every  inch  of  mould  beyond  the  depth  of  six  to 
ten  inches,  and  to  be  diminished,  in  the  same  proportion, 
from  six  to  three  inches,  in  soils  of  a  thinner  staple. 
Principes  Raisonnisd''Ag.^  vol.  iii.  p.  138,  §735.  These 
considerations  have  been  hitherto  but  little  regarded  in 
our  practice,  though  they  constitute  an  important  feature 
in  the  new  system  of  husbandry. 

Good  tillage  demands,  also,  the  extirpation  of  weeds. 
Every  plant  which  grows  upon  a  soil  tends  to  impair  its 
fertility,  and  weeds  more  than  cultivated  crops,  because 
they  are  generally  the  most  hardy,  and  the  greatest  con- 
sumers of  vegetable  food.  They  are  particularly  preju- 
dicial to  crops  in  a  dry  season,  as  they  exhaust  the  soil 
of  moisture  in  proportion  to  their  superficies,  or  the  sur- 
face of  their  stems  and  leaves,  some  species  transpiring 
their  weight  of  moisture  every  twenty-four  hours.     The 


PRINCIPLES    OF   TILLAGE.  123 

drill  culture  and  deep  ploughing  both  lessen  the  evil  of 
weeds  ;  the  first  tends  to  destroy  them,  and  the  latter  to 
bury  their  seeds  so  deep,  as  to  prevent  the  plants  getting 
ahead  of,  and  choking,  the  young  crop.  Clean  tillage  has 
been  too  much  neglected  in  our  practice.  Many  crops 
are  diminished  a  fourth,  a  third,  a  half,  by  pestiferous 
weeds  which  are  permitted  to  seed  and  propagate  upon 
the  land. 

In  regard  to  some  troublesome  perennials,  as  Canada 
thistles,  wild  onions,  quack  grass,  daisies,  &c.,  the  best 
means  of  destroying  them  is,  to  prevent  the  growth  of 
leaves,  their  elaborating  organs,  which  concoct  and  pre- 
pare their  food.  This  is  done  by  frequent  summer  plough- 
ings,  or  by  a  succession  of  well-cultivated  hoed  crops. 
Good  tillage  requires  good  implements,  and  these  to  be 
kept  in  order,  that  the  farm-work  may  be  economically 
done,  and  well  done,  and  done  at  the  proper  time.  The 
disparity  between  old  and  new  implements  of  culture  is 
great,  not  only  in  the  time  employed,  but  in  the  manner 
in  which  they  do  their  work,  and  in  the  power  required 
to  perform  it.  The  old  plough  required  a  four-cattle 
team,  and  two  hands,  to  manage  it,  and  the  work  ordi- 
narily was  but  half  executed.  The  improved  plough  is 
generally  propelled  by  two  cattle,  requires  but  one  man 
to  manage  it,  and,  when  properly  governed,  performs 
thorough  work.  Harrows  and  other  implements  have  un- 
dergone a  like  improvement.  Besides,  new  implements, 
which  greatly  economize  the  labor  of  tillage,  are  coming 
into  use,  as  the  roller,  cultivator,  drill-barrow,  &c.,  so  that 
a  farm  may  now  be  worked  with  half  the  expense  of 
labor  that  it  was  wont  to  be  worked  forty  years  ago,  and 
may  be  better  worked  withal.  Mind,  likewise,  where  it 
is  put  in  requisition,  and  enlightened  by  science,  is  doing 
ten  times  more  in  aid  of  agricultural  labor  than  it  formerly 
did. 

If  we  revert  to  old,  and,  in  many  cases,  present  prac- 
tices, we  shall  perceive,  that  thorough  tillage  has  not  been 
sufficiently  attended  to.  Our  implements  have  been  de- 
fective, and  the  manner  of  using  them  often  imperfect. 
Good  ploughing  is  all-important  to  good  farming,  and  still 


124  OPERATIONS   OF  TILLAGE. 

there  is  no  labor  upon  the  farm  that  has  been  more  im- 
perfectly performed,  than  this  generally  has  been.  Light 
soils  seldom  require  but  a  single  ploughing  for  the  seed, 
if  well  executed  ;  but  if  badly  executed,  two  ploughings 
are  too  little.  Our  implements  are,  however,  daily  im- 
proving;  the  importance  of  good  tillage  is  becoming  more 
and  more  apparent,  and  our  practical  knowledge  is  in- 
creasing. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 


OPERATIONS  OF  TILLAGE. 


There  are  six  prominent  objects  to  be  effected  by  til- 
lage ;  viz., 

1 .  To  break  up  the  entire  surface-stratum  of  soil,  there- 
by to  render  it  permeable  to  the  agents  of  vegetable  nu- 
trition and  growth,  and  the  roots  of  plants. 

2.  To  give  the  greatest  exposure  of  surface  to  the  ame- 
liorating influence  of  the  atmosphere. 

3.  To  induce  a  pulverization  of  the  soil,  that  seeds 
may  more  readily  germinate  and  grow,  and  air  and  moist- 
ure more  freely  circulate  in  it. 

4.  To  destroy  weeds  and  foreign  plants,  that  rob  the 
crop  of  food,  and  choke  its  growth. 

5.  To  effect  an  economical  distribution  of  the  dung, 
the  food  of  the  crop,  by  blending  and  incorporating  it  with 
the  soil. 

6.  To  bury  the  seed  of  the  intended  crop. 

The  principal  implements  employed  in  the  operation 
of  tillage  are,  the  Plough,  Harrow,  Roller,  Cultivator,  and 
Drill. 

§1.    The  Plough. 

In  order  to  profit  from  the  excellent  illustrations  of 
Professor  Low,  in  the  use  of  the  Plough,  we  shall  copy 
this  writer's  remarks  from  his  Elements  of  Practical  Ag- 
riculture. 


OPERATIONS    OF   TILLAGE. 


125 


"  By  means  of  this  instrument  the  earth  is  to  be  turned 
over  to  a  given  depth  ;  and  this  is  to  be  effected  by  cut- 
ting from  the  ground  successive  sods  or  shoes  of  earth, 
so  that  each  sod  or  shoe  shall  be  raised  up  or  turned  over, 
in  such  a  manner  that  an  entirely  new  surface  shall  be  ex- 
posed to  the  atmosphere." 

In  this  mode  of  laying  the  furrow,  it  will  be  perceived, 
the  largest  surface  is  exposed  to  the  enriching  influence 
of  the  atmosphere — viz.,  one  entire  edge,  and  most  of 
both  the  upper  and  under  surfaces  of  the  furrow-slice. 

In  fig.  14,  let  A  B  C  D  represent  the  end  or  trans- 
verse section  of  the  slice  of  earth  which  is  to  be  turned 


over. 


Fig.  14. 


Fig.  16. 


Fig.  16. 


The  slice  is  first  to  be  raised  from  the  position  in  which 
it  lies  in  fig.  14  ;  it  is  next  to  be  placed  in  the  position 
shown  in  fig.  15,  and  it  is  finally  to  be  placed  in  that 
represented  in  fig.  16. 

''In  the  following  diagram,  fig.  17,  let  A  B  C  D, 
corresponding  with  the  same  letters  in  the  last  figures, 
represent  a  transverse  section  of  the  slice  of  earth  which 
is  to  be  turned  over.  This  slice  is  first  to  be  raised  from 
its  horizontal  position  A  B  C  D,  by  being  turned  upon 
its  corner  C  as  a  pivot,  and  placed  in  the  position 
C  E  F  G,  corresponding  with  that  of  fig.  15  ;  it  is  then 
to  be  turned  upon  its  corner  G,  as  upon  a  pivot,  and  laid  in 
11* 


126  OPERATIONS   OF  TILLAGE. 

the  position  G  H  I  K,  corresponding  with  that  of  fig.  16. 
In  this  manner  the  side  D  C,  which  was  formerly  un- 
derneath, will  be  above,  namely,  in  the  position  H  I  ; 
and  if  successive  shoes  be  thus  reversed,  they  will  rest 
upon  each  other  in  the  manner  shown  by  the  section  of 
the  slices  P  Q  R  S,  O  L  M  N,  and  G  H  IK. 


"  The  angle  of  inchnation  at  which  these  different 
shoes  will  naturally  rest  upon  each  other  in  the  manner 
shown  in  the  figure,  will  depend  upon  the  proportion  which 
the  width  of  the  slices  bears  to  their  depth  ;  and  that  the 
greatest  extent  of  surface  may  be  exposed  to  the  air,  the 
angle  of  their  inchnation  will  be  45°.  In  order,  there- 
fore, that  the  slices  may  be  at  this  angle,  the  proportion 
which  the  width  of  the  shoes  bears  to  their  depth  is  to  be 
determined  ;  and  this  can  be  done  by  simple  calculation  ; 
for  it  can  be  shown  that,  the  width  of  the  slice  A  B  being 
the  hypotenuse  of  an  isosceles  right-angled  triangle,  the 
depth  of  the  slice  B  C  will  be  one  of  the  sides.  Sup- 
posing, therefore,  the  width  of  the  sod  A  B  to  be  ten 
inches,  the  depth  B  C  will,  by  calculation,  be  7.071 
inches. 

''  If,  then,  beginning  at  one  side  of  a  field,  we  shall  cut 
off  a  shoe  of  earth,  the  entire  length  of  this  field,  and  place 
it  in  the  position  P  Q  R  S,  fig.  17,  and  then  cut  off  a 
second  slice,  and  place  it  in  the  position  of  O  L  M  N, 
and  then  a  third  shoe,  and  place  it  in  the  position 
G  H  I  K,  and  so  on,  the  various  slices  will  rest  upon 
each  other  at  a  given  angle,  in  the  manner  represented. 

"  A  similar  operation  is  to  be  performed  by  the  plough. 
Beginning  at  the  right-hand  side  of  the  field  or  ridge  to 
be  ploughed,  a  sod,  which  we  shall  now  call  a  furrow- 
shce,  is  to  be  cut  from  the  firm  ground,  raised  up  and 
turned  over,  and  so  on.     In  this  manner,  an  entire  new 


5^  A'  t>  /  ^^    i.<^-  ^-^^i^''  r 


OPERATIONS   OF  TILLAGE. 


127 


surface  will  be  exposed  to  the  atmosphere,  and  the  suc- 
cessive furrow-slices  laid  resting  upon  each  other,  thus  : — 
Fig.  18. 


"  An  essential  property  of  the  plough  is,  that  it  shall 
move  in  the  earth  with  a  steady  motion  ;  and  the  giving 
to  it  the  force  and  combination  of  parts  necessary  for  that 
purpose  is  one  of  the  main  difficulties  attending  its  con- 
struction. 

''  Were  it  ascertained,  by  experiment  on  the  plough 

when  at  work,  at  a  given  depth  of  furrow,  and  in  soil  of 

a  given  texture,  that  a  cord  attached  to  any  point  A,  fig. 

19,  and  drawn  in  the  oblique  direction  A  B,  would  so 

Fig.  19. 


pull  forward  the  plough,  that  it  should  press  uniformly 
upon  the  earth  at  all  points,  from  C  to  D,  so  that  the 
share  should  neither  tend  to  point  upwards  or  downwards, 
but  should  move  horizontally  forward,  then  it  is  to  some 
part  of  this  line  that  the  moving  power  should  be  applied  ; 
and  further,  it  is  known  from  the  principles  of  mechanics, 
that  it  matters  not,  in  so  far  as  regards  the  force  exerted, 


128  OPERATIONS   OF   TILLAGE. 

to  what  precise  part  of  this  hne  the  power  is  applied. 
Now,  without  entering  into  any  mathematical  investigation 
of  the  principles  upon  which  this  hne  is  to  be  determined, 
it  is  to  be  observed,  that  in  a  well-made  plough,  formed 
on  the  principles  pointed  out,  this  line,  drawn  from  the 
usual  point  of  detachment  of  the  draught  on  the  collars 
of  the  working  cattle,  will  intersect  the  sole  of  the  plough 
at  E,  a  little  behind  the  setting  of  the  share,  and  a  little 
to  the  right  of  the  plane  of  the  left  side  of  the  Instrument.   -^J 

''  Now,  knowing  the  height  at  which  the  point  of  draught 
is  to  be  attached  to  the  shoulders  of  the  working  cattle, 
let  us  suppose  4  feet,  and  the  distance  from  the  point  of 
the  share  at  which  the  animals  of  draught  can  be  conve- 
niently yoked,  let  us  suppose  12  feet,  then  laying  off 
D  F  12  feet,  and  F  B  4  feet,  and  drawing  B  E  ;  it  fol- 
lows that  the  point  at  the  end  of  the  beam,  is  that  to  which 
the  draught  is  attached. 

"  But  the  angle  which  the  line  E  B  forms  with  the 
surface,  is  not,  as  can  be  shown,  constant,  but  varies  with 
the  depth  ploughed,  and  the  tenacity  of  the  soil.  That 
the  instrument  may  suit  itself  to  these  variations,  as  well 
as  that  any  defects  in  the  form  of  its  parts  may  be  coun- 
teracted, and  that  the  line  of  draught  may  be  placed  in 
that  po^tytipn  which  is  required  to  pull  forward  the  plough, 
without  there  being  any  tendency  in  the  share  to  sink  into 
the  ground  or  rise  out  of  it,  the  bridle  is  fixed  at  the  end 
of  the  beam,  so  as  to  elevate  or  depress  the  hne  of  draught, 
as  may  be  required.  Should  the  plough,  for  example, 
tend  to  go  deeper  into, the  earth,  the  line  of  draught  is  to 
be  lowered,  by  nf^tns  of  the  bridle,  so  that  it  shall  form 
a  greater  angle  B  G  F  ;  the  effect  of  which  will  be  to 
counteract  the  tendency  which  the  plough  has  to  go  deep- 
er. The  same  effect  will  be  produced  by  shortening  the 
traces  by  which  the  horses  are  attached  to  the  draught, 
and  thus  increasing  the  angle.  In  like  manner,  by  means 
of  the  bridle,  the  point  of  draught  can  be  shifted  to  the 
right  or  to  the  left.  If  the  point  of  the  share  tends  to 
point  to  the  left  hand,  in  the  firm  ground,  the  line  of  draught 
is  shifted  more  to  the  left ;  and  if  to  the  right  hand,  it  is 
shifted  more  to  the  right.      This  adjusting  of  the  plough's 


OPERATIONS   OF  TILLAGE.  129 

motion  is  easy,  and  is  performed  by  the  ploughman,  until 
he  feels  that  the  plough  continues  to  swim  fair^  to  use  his 
own  technical  language,  that  is,  until  he  feels,  which  he 
does  at  once,  that  it  continues  to  move  horizontally  for- 
ward, without  any  tendency  to  turn  to  the  right  or  left, 
or  to  rise  from  the  earth  or  to  sink  into  it.  A  well-con- 
structed plough  of  this  kind,  therefore,  needs  no  wheels 
or  other  devices  to  steady  its  motion  ;  the  effect  being 
produced  by  merely  altering  the  line  of  draught. 

"  In  ploughing,  it  has  been  seen,  a  slice  of  earth  is  to 
be  cut  from  the  left-hand  side,  and  to  be  turned  over  to 
the  right-hand  side.  In  this  operation,  the  left-hand  or 
near-side  horse  walks  on  the  ground  not  yet  ploughed,  the 
right-hand  or  off-side  horse  walks  in  the  furrow  last  made, 
and  the  workman  follows  holding  the  handles  of  the  plough. 
By  means  of  these  handles  he  guides  the  plough,  and  he 
directs  the  animals  of  draught  by  the  voice  and  the  reins. 
When  he  is  to  turn  the  plough  at  the  end  of  the  ridge,  or 
when  it  encounters  an  obstacle,  as  a  large  stone,  he  presses 
down  the  handles,  so  that  the  heel  of  the  plough  becomes 
a  fulcrum,  and  the  share  is  raised  out  of  the  ground. 

' '  In  ploughing,  the  instrument  ought  to  be  held  vertically.      t^. 
If  it  is  inclined  to  the  left-hand  side,  the  same  work  is 
performed  in  appearance,  though  not  in  reality,  a  portion 
of  the  ground  below  not  being  tilled  at  all,  but  left  thus  : 

Fig.  20. 


''  The  plough  is  of  the  most  perfect  form,  when  its 
various  parts  are  so  adjusted  that  they  shall  not  oppose 
each  other's  motion  ;  but  it  is  very  difficult  to  form  a 
plough  that  is  perfect  in  its  form  and  the  combination  of  its 
parts.  Even  in  those  of  the  best  construction,  there  is 
frequently  found  to  be  a  tendency  to  rise  out  of  the  ground, 
or  to  turn  to  one  side,  generally  the  right-hand  or  open 
side.  The  tendency  to  rise  out  of  the  ground  can  be 
corrected  by  giving  an  inclination  downwards  to  the  point 
of  the  share,  and  the  tendency  to  turn  to  the  open  or  right- 
hand  side  can  be  corrected  by  turning  the  point  of  the 


130  OPERATIONS    OF  TILLAGE. 

share  slightly  to  the  left-hand  side.  By  these  means, 
however,  the  labor  of  draught  is  mcreased,  and  care  must 
therefore  be  taken  that  this  tempering  of  the  irons,  as  it 
is  frequently  called,  be  not  in  any  case  carried  further  than 
is  necessary  to  correct  the  defects  of  the  instrument.  All 
that  is  necessary  beyond  this  is  effected  by  changing  the 
position  of  the  line  of  draught,  by  means  of  the  bridle  on 
the  beam. 

"  With  regard  to  the  depth  to  be  ploughed,  this,  we 
shall  see  in  the  sequel,  depends  upon  the  kind  of  crop  to 
be  cultivated,  and  other  circumstances.  It  has  been 
shown  that  a  furrow-slice  of  ten  inches  in  width  requires  a 
depth  of  seven  inches,  that  is,  a  depth  of  about  two  thirds 
of  the  width,  in  order  that  it  may  lie  at  the  angle  of  45°. 
But,  although  it  is  necessary  to  proceed  upon  this  prin- 
ciple in  forming  a  plough,  we  cannot  regulate  the  width 
to  the  depth  in  this  manner  in  practice.  It  is  not  neces- 
sary that  the  depth  should  be  to  the  width  in  the  propor- 
tion of  two  to  three,  or  that  the  sod  should  be  precisely 
at  the  angle  of  45°.  In  the  field,  all  that  can  be  arrived 
at  is  a  kind  of  approximation  to  the  true  proportions. 
When  the  sods  are  considerably  too  wide  in  proportion 
to  their  depth,  the  ploughman  will  be  admonished  of  this 
by  their  lying  too  flat,  and  too  slightly  overlapping  each 
other.  When  their  depth  is  considerably  too  great  in 
proportion  to  their  width,  they  will  stand  too  upright,  and 
be  apt  to  fall  back  again  into  the  furrow. 

"  The  medium  depth  of  good  ploughing  may  be  held 
to  be  seven  inches.  When  circumstances,  as  the  kind 
of  crop,  and  the  nature  of  the  soil,  do  not  require  deep 
ploughing,  the  depth  may  be  less  ;  but  it  will  be  consid- 
erable in  those  cases  to  be  afterwards  adverted  to,  when 
deep  ploughing  is  from  any  cause  expedient. 

"  In  the  moist  climate  of  Britain,  and  indeed  in 
most  parts  of  Europe,  it  is  necessary  to  form  the  ground 
into  what  are  termed  ridges,  so  as  to  admit  of  the  water 
which  falls  upon  the  surface  finding  a  ready  egress.  And 
even  in  lands  so  dry  that  litde  injury  will  result  from  stag- 
nating water,  such  ridges  are  generally  formed,  on  account 
of  their  convenience  in  the  different  modes  of  tillage. 


OPERATIONS    OF  TILLAGE. 


131 


"  The  first  operation  in  the  formation  of  ridges  is  stri- 
king the  furrows. 

"  Let  it  be  supposed  that  afield  has  been  laid  level  by 
previous  ploughings,  and  that,  the  marks  of  former  ridges 
being  obliterated,  the  lines  of  the  new  ones  are  to  be  laid 
out.  The  usual  breadth  of  ridges  is  from  fifteen  to  eighteen 
feet,  and  sometimes  more.  We  may  assume,  in  the  follow- 
ing descriptions,  fifteen  feet  to  be  the  width  of  the  ridge. 

"  Let  a  steady  ploughman  be  furnished  with  three  or 
more  poles  of  wood  shod  with  iron,  eight  or  nine  feet  in 
length,  and  divided  into  feet  and  half  feet.  The  first  op- 
eration is  to  mark  off,  at  two  sides  of  the  field,  what  is 
termed  a  head-land.  This  is  merely  a  ridge  formed  par- 
allel to  the  side  of  the  field,  on  which  the  horses  are  to 
turn,  to  afford  sufficient  space  for  which,  these  ridges  may 
be  eighteen  feet  wide.  The  lines  of  them  are  marked 
off  before  the  other  ridges,  in  order  that  the  ploughman 
may  know  when  to  turn  his  horses.  After  the  rest  of  the 
field  is  ploughed,  the  head-lands  themselves  are  ploughed 
and  turned  into  ridges. 

"  In  the  following  diagram,  fig.  21,  representing  a 
field,  let  E  F,  G  H,  represent  the  lines  of  the  head-lands, 
drawn  parallel  to  A  B,  and  C  D,  the  sides  or  boundaries 
of  the  field,  and  at  the  distance  from  each  of  these  sides 
of  eighteen  feet.  These  lines  the  ploughman  marks  out, 
by  running  a  straight  furrow  with  his  plough  parallel  to 
the  two  sides. 


Fig.  21. 


f    s    c 


g       d  0    a 


132  OPERATIONS   OF  TILLAGE. 

''Let  him  now,  beginning  at  the  two  sides  of  the  field, 
A  D,  parallel  to  which  it  is  intended  to  run  the  ridges, 
measure  off  with  his  pole  E  a,  seven  and  a  half  feet.  At 
the  point  a,  let  him  place  one  of  his  poles.  This  is  the 
point  at  which  he  is  to  enter  his  plough.  But,  leaving  his 
horses  in  the  mean  time,  let  him  walk  on  to  a  convenient 
distance,  as  to  I,  and  then  in  like  manner  measuring  off 
I  Z),  seven  and  a  half  feet,  let  him  set  up  his  second  pole 
at  6,  and  then,  at  the  further  end  of  the  field,  on  the  line 
of  the  head-land,  at  c,  let  him  place  his  third  pole.  He 
has  now  three  poles  placed  in  a  line  ;  but  if,  from  the  length 
of  the  field,  or  irregularities  of  the  surface,  more  than  three 
poles  are  necessary,  more  must  be  used,  as  there  must 
be  so  many  poles  in  sight,  that  the  ploughman  may  be 
enabled  to  direct  his  plough,  by  means  of  them,  in  a  straight 
line.  He  now  returns  to  his  plough,  and  enters  it  at  the 
first  pole  at  a,  keeping  the  other  two  poles  in  a  line,  so 
that  he  may  be  enabled  to  plough  directly  towards  them. 
Having  entered  his  plough  at  a,  he  stops  his  horses  and 
measures  off  fifteen  feet  to  d,  where  he  plants  the  pole. 
He  then  returns  to  his  plough,  which  is  standing  at  a,  and 
drives  his  horses,  keeping  the  two  poles  before  him  as  a 
guide,  to  the  second  pole,  b.  Having  done  this,  and  leav- 
ing his  plough  standing  at  6,  he  measures  off  from  b  to  e, 
fifteen  feet,  and  there  he  plants  his  pole.  He  then  returns 
to  his  plough,  and  proceeds  forward,  making  his  furrow 
in  a  straight  line  to  the  last  pole  at  c,  where  in  like  man- 
ner he  stops  his  horses,  and  measuring  off  fifteen  feet,  he 
plants  his  pole  at/. 

"In  this  manner  he  has  placed  his  poles  in  a  straight 
line,  at  the  distance  of  fifteen  feet  from  the  last  position, 
and  parallel,  as  before,  to  the  line  of  fence.  He  now  turns 
his  horses  short  about,  and  returns  by  the  furrow  he  has 
just  drawn,  c  b  a.  By  this  second  ploughing  he  throws 
the  earth  out  in  an  opposite  direction,  so  that  he  has 
formed  a  completely  open  furrow.  In  returning,  he  takes 
care  to  correct  any  irregularity  or  crookedness  which  may 
have  taken  place  through  the  unsteady  motion  of  the  horses 
in  his  first  track. 

"  The  poles  being  now  placed  in  a  line  d  e  /,  he  brings 


OPERATIONS    OF  TILLAGE.  133 

his  plough  to  d,  enters  it,  and  stops  it  there.  He  meas- 
ures off  fifteen  feet  from  d  to  g^  and  fixes  his  pole  at  g ; 
and  then  he  proceeds  with  his  plough  to  e  and  /,  repeating 
the  same  operation  with  the  poles  as  before,  and  returning 
by  the  track  of  the  last-made  furrow  from  /  to  d.  In  this 
manner  he  proceeds  throughout  the  whole  field,  forming 
open  parallel  furrows,  at  the  distance  from  each  other  of 
fifteen  feet ;  these  furrows  are  to  form  the  centres  of  the 
future  ridges. 

"  The  field  is  now  prepared  for  being  ploughed  into 
ridges,  and  the  manner  of  doing  so  is  this  : — 

''  The  ploughman,  beginning  at  the  left-hand  side  of  the 
open  furrow,  ploughs  his  first  furrow-shce  towards  it.  He 
then,  returning  by  the  opposite  side,  performs  the  same 
operation,  causing  the  two  first  furrow-slices  to  rest  upon 
each  other. 

"  Thus,  in  forming  his  first  ridge,  he  begins  at  the  side 
of  «,  and  ploughing  in  the  direction  of  a  to  c,  he  turns  his 
first  furrow-slice  into  the  open  furrow  a  c.  When  he  ar- 
rives at  c,  he  turns  his  plough  right  about  ;  and  returning 
from  c  to  a,  he  lays  his  second  furrow-slice  upon  the  first 
one,  as  at  C,  fig.  21. 

"  In  this  manner  he  continues,  always  turning  to  the 
right-hand  side,  and  laying  his  furrow-slices  towards  the 
centre  of  the  ridge,  until  he  has  reached  the  boundary  of 
the  ridge,  E  H,  on  the  one  side,  and  the  line  o  5,  half 
way  between  c  a  and  d  /,  on  the  othpr.  He  has  thus 
formed  a  ridge,  of  which  c  a  is  the  crown  or  centre,  and 
H  E  and  o  s  the  termination.  By  proceeding  in  this 
manner  throughout  the  field,  the  whole  is  formed  into 
ridges,  of  which  the  first-marked  furrows  are  the  centres. 

"  It  has  been  said  that  the  ploughman  continues  turn- 
ing his  horses  to  the  right,  and  that  thus,  having  proceeded 
from  rt  to  c,  he  returns  from  c  to  a,  and  so  on,  always 
ploughing  round  «  c  as  a  central  line.  When,  however, 
he  has  proceeded  from  a  to  c,  he  may  turn  his  horses 
left  about,  and  return  from /to  c?,  and  so  on,  always  lay- 
ing his  furrow-slices  towards  a  c  and  /  c?,  respectively. 
In  this  manner  he  will  have  ploughed  the  half  of  two 
adjoining  ridges,  and  terminated  at  the  space  o  5,  half 
12  XV. 


134 


OPERATIONS  OF  TILLAGE. 


way  between  them.  This  method  of  ploughing,  it  will 
appear,  has  the  same  effect  as  turning  the  horses  right 
about,  and  is  the  most  frequent  and  convenient  in  prac- 
tice. 

"  In  the  following  figure,  22,  in  which  C  C,  C  C,  C  C 
are  the  centres  of  the  ridges,  the  manner  in  which  the 
successive  furrow-slices  have  been  laid  upon  each  other 
is  shown. 

Fig.  22. 


"  By  this  laying  of  the  earth  towards  the  centres,  the 
ridges  acquire  a  certain  curvature.  By  ploughing  the 
earth  away  from  the  intervals  D  E,  F  G,  the  ground  is 
hollowed  at  these  parts, which  now  forms  the  open  furrows. 
It  is  by  these  open  furrows  that  the  water  which  falls 
upon  the  surface  finds  a  passage. 

"  A  certain,  though  not  a  great,  degree  of  curvature, 
is  given  to  the  ridge  by  this  ploughing.  It  is  frequently, 
however,  necessary  to  give  it  a  yet  greater  degree  of  cur- 
vature and  elevation.  This  is  done  by  ploughing  the 
whole  ridge  a  second  time,  and  in  a  similar  manner. 

*'  The  plough  is  first  driven  along  the  centre  of  the 
ridge  from  C  to  C,  forming  an  open  furrow.  Successive 
furrow-slices  are  then  laid  towards  this  furrow,  in  the 
same  manner  as  in  the  previous  ploughing.     This  is  done 


OPERATIONS    OF   TILLAGE.  135 

with  the  successive  furrow-slices,  until  the  plough  reaches 
the  open  furrows  D  E,  F  G.  In  this  manner  the  whole 
ridge  is  ploughed,  and  an  increased  elevation  and  curva- 
ture given  to  it.      This  operation  is  termed  gathering, 

"  In  performing  the  operation  of  gathering,  it  is  impor- 
tant that  the  ridge  be  formed  with  a  uniform  curvature,  so 
that  it  shall  not  have  what  is  technically  termed  a  shoul- 
der, or  hollow  part,  on  each  side  of  the  crown.  It  is  to 
prevent  this  defect,  that  the  open  track  is  made  along  the 
crown  before  the  first  two  slices  are  laid  together  ;  by 
which  means  the  ploughman  is  better  enabled  to  lay  them 
upon  each  other  in  such  a  manner  that  they  shall  not  over- 
lap and  form  a  protuberance  at  the  crown  of  the  ridge. 
A  transverse  section  of  the  ridges,  when  gathered,  will 
appear  thus : — 

Fig.  23. 

B  C  E  C  G 

''  A.  ridge,  however,  being  already  formed,  it  may  be 
wished  to  plough  it  again,  and  yet  to  preserve  it  at  the 
same  curvature  and  elevation.  In  this  case,  the  plough 
is  to  enter  at  the  open  furrow,  and  to  lay  the  successive 
furrow-shces  towards  it,  until  the  two  adjoining  ridges  are 
ploughed.  By  this  means  all  the  shoes  of  the  same  ridge 
lie  in  the  same  direction,  and  the  curvature  and  elevation 
of  the  whole  remain  as  before.  This  operation  is  termed 
casting,  and  the  manner  in  which  the  furrow-slices  rest 
upon  each  other  will  appear  in  fig.  23. 

"  In  the  same  operation  of  casting,  two  methods  may 

be  pursued.     The  two  first  furrow-slices,  as  those  at  E 

and  C,  may  be  laid  resting  upon  each  other,  as  in  fig. 

24,  in  which  case  the  two  ridges  will  be  formed,  as  it 

Fig.  24. 

B  C  £  C  G 

5 

were,  into  one  large  ridge  ;  or  else,  the  open  furrow  at 
E  may  be  preserved  by  keeping  the  two  first  furrow-slices 


136  OPERATIONS    OF  TILLAGE. 

at  a  little  distance  from  each  other,  and  preserving  the 
space  between  them,  as  in  fig.  25. 

Fig.  25. 


''  When  land  is  ploughed  in  this  manner,  the  ground  is 
taken  from  one  side  of  each  two  adjoining  ridges  at  G, 
and  laid  towards  the  other,  E  ;  that  is,  it  is  gathered 
towards  one  side  and  gathered  from  the  other.  In  this 
manner  the  ground  at  the  open  furrow  G,  from  which 
we  gather,  becomes  more  bare  of  earth  than  the  open 
furrow  E,  towards  which  we  gather.  This  is  an  imper- 
fection unavoidable  in  casting  a  ridge.  When,  therefore, 
we  wish  to  cast  a  ridge  twice  in  succession,  we  reverse 
the  former  mode  of  ploughing  ;  we  gather  towards  the 
open  furrow  G,  and  from  the  open  furrow  E,  and  thus 
the  ridge  is  restored  to  its  former  state. 

"•  Another  method  of  ploughing  is  cleaving.  In  this 
case,  the  plough  commences  at  the  open  furrow,  lays  the 
first  slice  towards  it,  and  then,  returning  by  the  other  side 
of  the  open  furrow,  lays  the  second  slice  upon  the  first, 
as  in  fig.  26.  When  it  has  reached  the  centre,  it  stops 
Fig.  26. 

B  C  E  C  G 

and  begins  with  another  pair  of  ridges,  and  ploughs  the 
half  of  each  pair  together  in  the  same  manner.  In  this 
way  the  open  furrows  of  the  ridges  become  the  centres, 
and  the  former  centres  become  the  open  furrows.  The 
operation  of  cleaving  is  of  constant  occurrence  in  the 
summer-fallow,  and  other  cleaving  processes  of  tillage. 
When  we  wish  to  level  a  ridge,  we  cleave  it. 

"  There  are  two  variations  to  be  noticed  in  the  prac- 
tice of  cleaving  :  either  the  two  first  slices  are  laid  togeth- 
er, in  which  case  the  open  furrows  of  the  former  ridges 
become  the  centres,  and  the  former  centres  the  open 
furrows,  in  the  manner  shown  in  fig.  26  ;  or  a  certain 


OPERATIONS   OF   TILLAGE. 


137 


distance  is  kept  between  the  two  first  slices,  and  so  the 
open  furrow  is  preserved.  In  this  case,  each  ridge  is 
split  into  two  ridges,  and  the  number  of  open  furrows  is 
doubled.     See  fig.  27. 

Fig.  27. 

B  C  E 

"  The  next  method  of  ploughing  is  cross-ploughing. 
This,  as    the   name  denotes,  is    ploughing   in  a  direc- 
tion crossing  that  of  the  former  ridges  and  furrows. 
Fig.  28. 


''  In  cross-ploughing,  the  workmen  place  themselves  at 
equal  distances  from  each  other,  as  thirty  or  forty  yards, 
at  the  side  of  the  field  at  which  they  are  to  begin  to 
plough.  Each  then  runs  a  straight  furrow  across  the  field, 
as,  fig.  28,  from  A  to  D,  from  B  to  E,  from  C  to  F. 
Each  then  returns  as  from  D  to  A,  from  E  to  B,  from 
F  to  C,  laying  always  the  successive  furrow-slices  to- 
wards the  right  hand,  until  each  man  arrives  at  the  ter- 
mination of  his  allotted  space,  xx^xx^xx^xx.  There  has 
been  thus  formed  by  each  workman  one  great  ridge,  but 
so  extended  that  it  may  be  said  to  be  without  curvature. 
The  ploughmen,  we  perceive,  turn  from  left  to  right 
around  the  first  furrows,  A  D,  B  E,  C  F.  But  they  may 
also  turn  from  right  to  left.  Thus,  in  going  from  B  to  E, 
the  ploughman  lays  his  first  furrow-slice  to  the  right  hand. 
When  he  arrives  at  E,  he  may  turn  his  horses  left  about, 
and  proceed  to  D,  and  returning  from  D  to  A,  lay  his  first 
furrow-slice  to  the  right  hand  towards  D  A.  Turning  left 
12* 


138  OPERATIONS   OF  TILLAGE. 

about  when  at  A,  he  proceeds  in  the  direction  B  E,  and 
so  on,  always  turning  left  about,  until  he  has  arrived  at  the 
middle  space  o,  when  the  whole  space  A  D  and  B  E  will 
have  been  ploughed. 

"  Sometimes,  for  convenience,  and  the  saving  of  dis- 
tance, he  may  plough  in  the  first  place  round  the  central 
line  BE,  by  turning  from  left  to  right,  and  then  plough 
the  remainder  of  the  interval  by  turning  from  right  to  left. 

"  These  are  matters  of  detail  somewhat  difficult  to  be 
described  clearly,  but  so  simple  in  themselves  that  they 
need  only  to  be  seen  in  the  field,  to  be  thoroughly  under- 
stood. 

"  The  first  operation,  we  have  seen,  is,  striking  the 
furrows  previous  to  forming  the  ridges.  This  is  done  by 
laying  off,  by  means  of  furrows,  first  the  lines  of  the  head- 
lands, and  then  the  parallel  lines  corresponding  to  the  fu- 
ture centres  of  the  ridges  to  be  formed. 

"  The  next  operation  is  forming  the  ridges.  This  is 
done  by  beginning  at  the  centre,  and  ploughing  towards 
it,  until  each  ridge  is  formed. 

''  When  ridges  are  formed,  they  may  subsequently  be 
ploughed  in  different  ways. 

"  First,  they  may  be  gathered  ;  in  which  case,  begin- 
ning at  the  crown,  the  ridge  is  ploughed,  and  an  increased 
elevation  given  to  it. 

"  Second,  they  may  be  cast ;  in  which  case,  two  ridges 
are  ploughed  together,  and  either  formed  into  one  large 
ridge,  or,  by  keeping  the  open  furrows  clear,  retained  in 
two  ridges. 

"  Third,  they  may  be  cloven  ;  in  which  case,  begin- 
ning at  the  open  furrows,  the  half  of  each  adjoining  ridge 
is  laid  together.  The  first  two  furrow-slices  may  either 
be  laid  close  together,  or  the  open  furrow  may  be  kept 
clear  between  them.  In  the  first  case,  each  ridge  will 
have  been  so  cloven,  that  the  open  furrow  shall  have  be- 
come the  crown,  and  the  crown  the  open  furrow.  In 
the  second,  each  ridge  will  have  been  cloven  into  two, 
and  the  number  of  ridges  and  open  furrows  doubled. 

"•  In  the  original  laying  out  of  the  ridges,  the  fines 
have  been  described  as  running  straight  through  the  field  ; 


OPERATIONS    OF   TILLAGE.  139 

but  it  is  frequently  expedient,  on  account  of  the  irregular- 
ities of  the  surface  or  other  causes,  to  change  the  direc- 
tion of  the  ridges  at  some  part  of  the  field,  so  as  to 
facilitate  the  discharge  of  the  water. 

"  The  application  to  this  case  of  the  principle  of  stri- 
king the  furrow  is  easy.  The  ploughman  makes  a  furrow 
where  the  change  of  direction  is  to  take  place,  straight  or 
curved,  as  circumstances  may  require.  The  one  set  of 
ridges  terminate  at  this  part,  and  the  others  are  laid  off 
from  it  in  the  new  direction  to  be  given.  The  plough- 
man, by  means  of  his  poles,  as  before,  strikes  his  first  set 
of  furrows,  terminating  them  at  the  furrow  where  the 
change  of  direction  is  to  take  place.  From  this  furrow 
he  strikes  his  second  set  of  furrows  in  the  direction  in 
which  they  are  to  run.  The  part  where  the  opposite  set  of 
furrows  meet,  maybe  made  an  open  furrow,  or  a  raised- 
up  ridge,  or  head-land,  as  circumstances  may  require. 

"  The  direction  of  the  ridges  must  generally  be  regula- 
ted by  the  sloping  of  the  fields,  and  the  lying  of  ditches 
and  fences,  so  that  they  may  promote  the  main  purpose 
for  which  they  are  formed,  the  carrying  off  of  surface- 
v/ater.  But,  other  circumstances  being  alike,  they  should 
be  made  to  lie  as  much  as  possible  north  and  south,  and 
as  rarely  as  possible  east  and  west  ;  for,  in  the  latter  case, 
when  the  ridges  are  much  elevated,  the  north  side  has  a 
somewhat  less  favorable  exposure  than  the  south  side. 

'^  Sometimes  ridges  are  altogether  dispensed  with, 
either  where  the  land  is  very  dry,  or  where  it  is  wished  to 
keep  it  in  grass,  and  give  it  the  aspect  of  a  park  or  lawn. 
In  this  case,  the  ploughs  may  either  follow  each  other  round 
the  entire  field,  and  terminate  at  the  centre,  or  they  may 
plough  in  large  divisions,  as  in  the  case  of  cross-ploughing. 

"  In  ploughing  very  steep  land,  it  is  frequently  laid  in 
ridges  diagonally  across  the  slope,  for  the  purpose  of 
rendering  the  labor  more  easy,  and  of  lessening  the  dan- 
ger of  torrents  carrying  away  the  surface. 

"The  precaution  to  be  observed  in  this  case  is,  to 
make  the  ridges  slope  upwards  from  the  right  hand,  as 
from  A  to  B,  fig.  29,  and  not  from  the  left  hand,  as 
from  C  to  D.     For  in  the  first  case,  when  the  laboring 


140  OPERATIONS   OF  TILLAGE. 

cattle  are  ascending  the  steep,  the  plough  is  throwing  the 
furrow-slice  down  hill  ;  whereas,  in  the  other  case,  when 
the  cattle  are  ascending,  they  are  raising  the  furrow-slice 
up  hill,  by  which  their  labor  is  greatly  increased. 


"  Besides  the  open  furrows  of  the  ridges,  which  act 
as  channels  for  carrying  off  the  water,  it  is  necessary, 
when  there  are  hollow  places  where  water  may  stagnate, 
to  form  open  furrows  or  channels.  This  is  done  by  draw- 
ing a  furrow  with  the  plough  in  the  direction  most  con- 
venient for  the  purpose.  A  workman  then  follows  with 
a  spade  or  shovel,  and  carefully  opens  intersections  with 
other  furrows,  so  that  there  may  be  a  free  communica- 
tion between  them. 

"  Sometimes  it  is  necessary  that  the  furrow  made  by  the 
plough  be  further  deepened  by  the  spade,  so  as  to  form  a 
channel  sufficiently  large  ;  and  wherever  head-lands  in- 
tersect the  run  of  water,  channels  must  be  cut  through 
them  to  the  ditch  or  outlet,  so  that  none  may  stagnate 
upon  the  ground.  Attention  to  these  details  in  practice 
is  essential  in  all  cases  of  tillage  ;  and  it  manifests  a  w^ant 
of  skill  and  industrious  habits  in  the  farmer  to  suffer  his 
lands  to  be  unproductive  by  the  stagnating  upon  them  of 
surface-water." — Professor  Low''s  Elements  of  Practical 
Agriculture. 

It  has  been  ascertained,  that  a  team,  walking  at  the  rate 
of  one  and  a  half  miles  an  hour,  will  plough  the  following 
quantity  of  a  medium  soil,  to  the  depth  of  five  inches,  in 

nine  hours  : 

A.  R.  P. 

Breadth  of  furrow  8  inches,  at  Ij  an  hour,   1  0  00 

u  9         u         u  t'        1  0  20 

u  8         ''         2  '<        1   1   10 

u  9         cc         u  ''12  00 


OPERATIONS    OF  TILLAGE.  141 

The  difference  in  the  quantity  ploughed  in  these  in- 
stances clearly  demonstrates  the  value  of  action  in  horses  ; 
but  it  must  at  the  same  time  be  observed,  that  the  dis- 
tance travelled  at  the  slow  pace  is  only  twelve,  while  at 
the  quicker  rate  it  is  sixteen  miles. 

We  will  close  the  subject  of  ploughing,  with  the  fol- 
lowing 

§  2.  Rules  for  Ploughmen. 

1st.  The  horses  should  be  harnessed  as  near  to  the 
plough  as  they  can  be  placed  without  impeding  the  free- 
dom of  their  step  ;  for  the  closer  they  are  to  the  point  of 
draught,  the  less  exertion  will  be  required  to  overcome 
the  resistance. 

2d.  When  ploughing  with  a  pair  abreast,  the  most 
powerful  horse  should  be  worked  in  the  furrow  ;  but  if  the 
team  be  harnessed  in  line,  and  there  be  any  difference  in 
the  height  of  the  cattle,  the  tallest  should  be  put  fore- 
most, if  he  be  in  every  respect  equal  to  the  other. 

3d.  When  at  work,  they  should  be  kept  going  at  as 
regular  and  good  a  pace  as  the  nature  of  the  work  will 
permit ;  for  they  are  thus  more  manageable,  and  the 
draught  easier  than  when  slow.  By  due  attention  to 
this,  the  heavy  soil  will  cling  less  to  the  coulter,  and  the 
land  will  be  found  to  work  more  freely. 

4th.  The  breadth  and  depth  of  the  furrow  being  as- 
certained, the  plough  should  be  held  upright,  bearing 
equally  all  along  on  a  straight  sole,  and  be  made  to  move 
forward  in  a  regular  line,  without  swerving  to  either  side. 
The  edge  of  the  coulter  should  be  set  directly  forward, 
so  that  the  land-side  of  it  may  run  in  a  parallel  line  with 
the  land-side  of  the  head,  and  in  such  a  position  that  their 
slant  or  sweep  may  exactly  correspond. 

5ih.  The  ploughman  should  walk  with  his  body  as 
nearly  as  possible  upright,  without  leaning  on  the  stilts, 
and  without  using  force  to  any  part,  further  than  may  be 
absolutely  necessary  to  keep  the  implement  steadily  in  a 
straight  hne.  He  should  also  be  sparing  of  his  voice, 
and  of  correction  to  the  team  :  of  the  former,  because 
too  much  cheering  and  ordering  only  confuses  the  catde ; 


142  OPERATIONS   OF  TILLAGE. 

and  of  the  latter,  because  punishment,  when  often  repeat- 
ed, at  length  ceases  to  have  due  effect,  and  thus  leads  to 
unnecessary  beating. 

There  is,  in  fact,  a  certain  degree  of  taste  in  plough- 
ing, as  well  as  in  every  thing  else, — a  kind  of  tact,  which 
is  difficult  to  be  taught,  and  hardly  to  be  acquired  except 
by  a  sort  of  instinct.  The  ploughman  who  tills  the 
ground  with  dexterity,  never  presses  upon  the  plough 
without  necessity.  A  mere  touch,  or  a  glance  of  the  eye, 
tells  him  when  she  is  going  wrong,  and  a  slight  turn  of 
the  hand  sets  her  instantly  right ;  whereas  a  clumsy  fel- 
low, without  feehng  in  his  palms,  or  readiness  or  percep- 
tion, is  continually  either  throwing  the  plough  out,  or  she 
is  riding  upon  the  heel  or  point,  straining  the  team,  tiring 
himself,  and  altogether  making  bad  work. 

There  are  various  modes  of  regulating  the  pitch  of  the 
plough.  Thus,  it  may  be  made  to  go  deeper  by  lower- 
ing the  back-bands,  or  increasing  the  distance  of  the 
team  ;  by  setting  the  muzzle  higher  up  in  the  index  of  the 
beam,  and  by  slanting  and  giving  the  coulter  a  greater 
rake  forward  ;  and  the  reverse  will  make  it  go  shallower. 
It  can  also  be  constructed  with  a  regulating  lever,  which 
may  be  attached  to  any  of  the  foot  and  wheel  ploughs 
now  in  use,  and  can  be  used  occasionally,  or  otherwise, 
as  circumstances  may  require.  The  side  motion  may 
be  thus  altered  so  as  to  make  the  plough  take  a  broader 
slice,  or,  as  it  is  commonly  called,  "  to  give  her  more  or 
less  land  :"  by  putting  the  hook  of  the  traces  into  the 
notches  of  the  muzzle  more  towards  the  unploughed 
ground,  you  take  land  from  the  plough  ;  but  by  shifting 
it  to  the  furrow  side,  you  give  it  land.  It  ought,  there- 
fore, to  be  made  about  eight  inches  in  length,  and  may 

Fig.  30.  Fig.  31. 


OPERATIONS   OF   TILLAGE.  143 

be  fixed  either  to  the  side  of  the  beam,  or  to  the  top  and 
bottom,  as  delineated  in  figs.  30  and  31. 

The  ploughman  may  also  give  greater  breadth  by  press- 
ing the  stilts  towards  the  right ;  though  it  is  a  bad  plan, 
and  requires  too  much  exertion  to  be  continued  through- 
out a  day's  work. 

On  the  subject  of  draught,  it  may  be  observed,  that 
when  horses  are  properly  harnessed  to  the  plough,  their 
traces  will  be  in  a  direct  line,  firom  the  point  of  draught 
at  the  shoulder,  to  the  point  of  the  share,  passing  through 
the  regulating  notch  of  the  muzzle.  It  is  proper,  there- 
fore, to  ascertain  the  animal's  height,  in  order  that  the 
muzzle  may  be  fixed  accordingly  ;  but  as  his  shoulder  is 
not  so  far  from  the  ground  when  he  is  pulling,  as  when 
he  is  in  a  state  of  rest,  an  allowance  must  be  made  for 
the  difference.  Thus,  if  a  line  be  drawn  from  A,  at  the 
share  of  the  plough,  to  B,  fig.  32,  and  then  a  perpendicu- 
Fig.  32. 


lar  line  from  B  to  C,  at  the  horse's  shoulder,  an  angle 
is  formed  ;  then  if  another  perpendicular  line  be  formed 
from  A  to  a,  and  measured  upon  the  same  scale,  it  will 
give  the  height  of  the  beam  from  the  ground,  at  the  depth 
to  which  it  is  to  be  ploughed. 

It  follows,  therefore,  that  the  more  the  beam  is  raised 
in  height,  the  longer  it  must  be  made,  and  consequently 
the  traces  of  horses  must  be  lengthened  :  this,  however, 
lessens  their  power  ;  for  it  is  sufficiently  well  known, 
without  entering  into  any  mathematical  proof  upon  the 
subject,  that  the  further  the  animal  is  placed  from  his 
work,  the  less  effectual  will  be  his  exertions.  The  Rev- 
erend Mr.  Priest  made  this  experiment,  with  a  furrow 


144  OPERATIONS   OF    TILLAGE. 

9J  inches  wide  and  3|  deep  ;  when  the  length  of  the 
horses'  traces  was  10  feet  5  inches  from  the  point  of  the 
share  to  the  point  upon  their  shoulders  upon  whence  they 
were  drawing,  the  force  exerted  upon  the  point  of  draught 
of  the  plough,  or  the  power  of  their  draught,  was  only 
21  cwt.  ;  but  when  the  traces  were  lengthened  to  1 5  feet 
6  inches,  the  force  exerted  to  draw  the  plough  was  SJ 
cwt. — See  British  Husbandry. 

§  3.    The   Harrow. 

The  uses  of  the  Harrow  are,  1st,  to  pulverize  the 
soil  ;  2d,  to  clean  the  ground  of  the  roots  of  foul  plants, 
as  dock,  quack,  &c.  ;  and,  3d,  to  cover  the  seed.  The 
triangular  drag,  with  stout  iron  teeth,  which  is  well  adapt- 
ed to  new  lands,  has  been  principally  in  use  until  a  recent 
period  ;  but  we  are  now  having  them  of  various  patterns, 
and  adapted  to  different  soils  and  different  purposes. 
Upon  new  lands,  and  upon  heavy  clay  soils,  a  strong, 
heavy  harrow  is  to  be  preferred,  particularly  in  preparing 
the  ground  for  seed.  A  light  harrow  would  not  do  for 
either  of  these  purposes, — it  would  neither  tear  up  the 
new  soil,  nor  pulverize  the  stiff  one.  Upon  lands  already 
under  culture,  or  not  stiff,  square  or  angular  harrows 
are  preferred  ;  while  upon  well-worked  farms  of  light  soil, 
hghter  jointed  harrows,  with  smaller  and  closer-set  teeth, 
and  frames  that  will  conform  to  inequalities  of  surface, 
are  best,  and  are  in  all  cases  preferable  for  seed-harrows. 
A  farmer,  therefore,  who  makes  pretensions  to  good 
management,  ought  to  have  at  least  one  heavy  harrow  to 
pulverize  the  soil,  and  another  and  a  different  one  to  cover 
his  seeds. 

In  using  the  harrow,  the  teamster  should  understand 
the  object,  and  take  care  to  accomplish  it.  If  it  be  to 
break  down  and  mellow  the  soil,  this  should  be  done, 
though  it  may  require  one,  two,  or  three  bouts.  If  it 
be  an  object  to  eradicate  the  roots  of  perennial  weeds, 
these  should  be  carefully  collected,  as  they  are  thrown 
to  the  surface,  and  carried  off ;  and  if  the  harrow  is  ap- 
plied to  cover  seeds,  every  particle  of  the  surface  should 
be   gone   over,  both  ways  of  the  field,  and  a  smooth- 


OPERATIONS    OF  TILLAGE. 


145 


ness  and  evenness  of  the  surface  effected  as  far  as  prac- 
ticable. 

In  regard  to  the  shape  of  the  teeth,  they  should  be 
square,  with  a  gradual  taper  to  the  point,  the  fore  part 
being  kept  straight,  as  in  T,  fig.  33.      The  teeth  should 

Fie.  33. 


not  be  placed  too  closely  together,  for  then  they  would  be 
too  much  impeded  by  the  obstacles  opposed  to  them  : 
they  should  be  so  disposed  and  drawn,  that  one  tooth  shall 
not  cut  ill  the  track  of  another,  and  that  one  part  of 
the  instrument  shall  not  be  more  interrupted  than  another  : 
their  number  should  not  be  too  great,  because  their  pow- 
er to  penetrate  into  the  ground  will  be  diminished,  unless 
the  weight  of  the  harrow  is  considerably  increased  :  and, 
lastly,  they  should  not  be  longer  than  necessary,  because 
an  unnecessary  length  will  expose  them  to  greater  ob- 
structions, and  render  them  more  liable  to  spht  the  frames 
in  which  they  are  fixed. 

Harrowing  is   best  performed  when  the   land  is  dry, 
13  XV. 


146 


OPERATIONS    OF  TILLAGE. 


because  the  soil  is  then  better  pulverized,  and  less  poached 
by  the  feet  of  the  cattle. 

The  harrow  is  often  employed  upon  winter  grain,  in 
the  spring,  and  to  manifest  advantage.  A  light  one  is 
best  for  this  purpose,  as  the  object  is  merely  to  break  and 
pulverize  the  surface.  It  is  also  employed,  and  here  is 
a  heavy  one  wanted,  to  scarify  old  meadow  and  pasture 
grounds,  to  extirpate  moss,  and  to  cover  the  seeds  of 
grasses  which  may  be  sown  to  renovate  them.  For  the 
latter  purpose,  as  also  for  pulverizing  stiff  clays,  Conck- 
lin's  press-harrow,  fig.  34,  is  an  admirable  instrument. 
Fig.  34. 


The  harrows  represented  in  fig.  33  are  of  the  most 
approved  construction,  for  light  soils  and  for  seeds.  The 
frame  is  wood  and  the  teeth  are  iron. 

"  They  are  connected  together  in  pairs  by  hinges. 
They  consist  each  of  four  bars  of  wood,  A  B,  C  D,  &c., 
which  are  joined  together  by  an  equal  number  of  cross- 
bars of  smaller  dimensions,  mortised  through  them.  The 
larger  bars  may  be  2|  inches  or  more  in  width,  by  3 
in  depth,  and  the  smaller  2^  inches  in  width,  by  1  in 
depth.      The  larger  bars  are  placed  oblique  to  the  smaller 


OPERATIONS    OF   TILLAGE.  147 

bars,  and  to  the  line  of  the  harrow's  motion,  and  the  teeth 
are  inserted  into  them  at  equal  distances  from  each  other. 
This  inclination  is  made  to  be  such,  that  perpendiculars 
falling  from  each  of  the  teeth  upon  a  Hne  L  M,  drawn  at 
right  angles  to  the  harrow's  motion,  shall  divide  the  space 
between  the  bars  into  equal  parts,  so  that  the  various 
teeth,  when  the  instrument  is  moved  forward,  shall  indent 
at  equal  distances  the  surface  of  the  ground  over  which 
they  pass. 

"  The  number  of  teeth  in  each  harrow  is  twenty,  five 
being  inserted  in  each  of  the  larger  bars.  When  two 
harrows,  therefore,  are  employed  together,  the  surface  of 
the  ground  from  L  to  M  is  indented  by  40  teeth,  impres- 
sing the  ground  at  equal  distances  from  each  other,  and 
covering  the  space  of  about  9  feet.  The  teeth  may  pro- 
ject below  the  under  surface  of  the  frame  7  or  8  inches, 
their  length  somewhat  increasing  from  the  hindmost  to  the 
foremost  rows,  where  the  oblique  position  of  the  line  of 
draught  tends  most  to  elevate  the  harrow.  The  teeth 
are  often  inserted  into  the  frame  with  a  little  inclination 
forward  ;  but  this  deviation  from  the  perpendicular,  if 
made  at  all,  should  be  very  shght,  because  it  renders  the 
harrow  more  apt  to  be  impeded  by  the  weeds  or  oth- 
er substances  collecting  in  the  angle  between  them  and 
the  frame.  The  teeth  are  fixed  in  the  bars  by  boring 
holes  with  an  auger  of  about  |  of  an  inch  in  diameter, 
and  then  drawing  them  firmly  through.  The  teeth,  when 
thus  driven  into  the  bars,  will  be  retained  with  sufficient 
firmness.  The  best  of  the  common  kinds  of  wood  for 
the  larger  bars,  as  being  least  liable  to  split,  are  elm,  beach, 
or  ash,  and  for  the  cross-bars  ash. 

"  The  iron  rods  which  terminate  in  the  hinges,  O,  O, 
may  pass  through  the  frame-work,  to  give  it  greater 
strength.  These  rods  keep  the  harrows  at  the  distance 
required,  and  the  hinges  admit  of  either  harrow  rising  or 
falling  according  to  the  inequalities  of  the  surface.  When 
thus  joined,  the  harrows  are  drawn  by  two  horses  guided 
by  reins,  the  driver  walking  behind,  so  as  to  be  prepared 
to  lift  up  either  harrow  when  choked  by  weeds,  or  other- 
wise interrupted. 


148  OPERATIONS    OF   TILLAGE. 

§4.    The  Roller, 

The  roller  is  made  of  iron,  stone,  or  wood,  according 
to  convenience,  or  for  the  purposes  for  which  it  was  in- 
tended. In  American  husbandry,  we  have  no  reason  to 
expect,  or  perhaps  desire,  any  but  such  as  are  made  of 
wood,  and  such  as  any  farmer,  who  has  a  moderate  de- 
gree of  mechanical  skill,  and  the  carpenters'  tools  which 
every  farmer  ought  to  keep,  may  readily  construct.  A 
sound  oak  log,  with  the  frame  and  shafts  or  tongue  ap- 
pended, will  make  a  good  roller.  Rollers  are  made  of  dif- 
ferent lengths  and  sizes,  varying  from  15  to  30  inches  in 
diameter,  their  length  from  five  to  ten  feet,  and  their  weight 
should  be  from  12  to  20  cwt. — the  heavier  soils  requir- 
ing the  heavier,  and  the  lighter  soils  the  lighter  one.  The 
weight  can  readily  be  increased  by  stones,  or  other  heavy 
substances,  deposited  in  a  box  to  be  placed  upon  a  frame. 
The  lighter  kinds  are  made  in  one  piece  ;  but  the  larger 
and  heavier  kinds  are  made  in  two  pieces,  w^ith  a  washer 
between  them,  and  an  iron  rod  passing  through  the  centre 
of  both,  which  forms  the  axis  upon  which  they  revolve. 
English  farmers  construct  on  the  model  indicated  in  fig. 
35,  upon  the  frame  of  which  a  box  may  be  attached,  either 

Fig.  35. 


to  contain  stones  to  add  to  the  pressure  of  the  roller,  or 
to  receive  small  stones  and  rubbish,  gathered  by  the  team- 
ster as  he  progresses,  and  which  are  to  be  carried  off. 
The  objection  to  the  English  roller  is,  that  the  power 
is  not  advantageously  applied.  We  think  the  model  delin- 
eated in  fig.  36,  and  which  is  the  kind  generally  used  in  the 
United  States,  is  preferable  to  the  other,  because  the  draught 
is  nearly  in  a  right  line  from  the  point  of  draught  at  the  col- 
lar or  yoke,  to  the  point  of  resistance.  This  may  be  done 
and  the  advantages  of  the  box  retained.  It  is  stated  by 
Low,  that,  comparing  together  two  rollers  with  cyhnders 


OPERATIONS    OF   TILLAGE.  149 

of  unequal  diameter,  that  with  the  larger  cylinder  will 
be  more  efficacious  than  that  with  the  smaller  cylinder, 
because  a  greater  weight  can  be  brought,  by  the  exertion 
of  the  same  force,  to  act  upon  the  ground. 


Fig.  36. 


The  uses  and  advantages  of  the  roller  are  many  and 
important.  It  is  particularly  serviceable  in  the  seeding 
process,  to  break  down  the  clods,  pulverize  and  smooth 
the  surface,  and  to  press  the  earth  to  the  smaller  seeds, 
which  otherwise  often  fail  to  germinate  for  lack  of  moisture. 
This  is  particularly  the  case  with  oats,  barley,  and  grass- 
seeds.  In  autumn,  the  roller  is  sometimes  passed  over 
winter  grain,  with  the  view  of  counteracting  the  injurious 
effects  of  frost  the  following  winter.  In  spring,  it  is  ad- 
vantageously drawn  over  winter  grain,  as  soon  as  the 
ground  is  so  solid  and  dry  as  to  bear  the  tread  of  the  cat- 
tle without  poaching  it.  It  renders  light  ground  more 
compact,  presses  the  soil  to  the  roots  of  the  grain,  and 
thus  promotes  its  growth  ;  and  upon  all  soils  it  closes 
the  innumerable  cracks  and  fissures  which  abound  upon 
the  occurrence  of  dry  weather  in  spring,  occasioned  by 
the  abstraction  of  moisture  and  the  consequent  contraction 
of  the  soil, — and,  by  partially  burying  the  crown,  causes 
grain  to  tiller  better,  that  is,  to  send  up  more  seed-stocks. 
13* 


150  OPERATIONS    OF   TILLAGE. 

Finally,  a  heavy  roller  is  of  great  advantage  to  grass- 
grounds  in  the  spring,  by  reducing  irregularities  of  surface, 
and  pressing  down  the  plants  or  earth  which  have  been 
thrown  up  by  the  frost. 

There  are  also  rollers  constructed  for  other  purposes,  as 
the  spiked  roller^  which  is  used  to  pulverize  stubborn  clays 
preparatory  to  the  wheat  crop,  and  to  scarify  old  mead- 
ows and  pastures,  as  a  means  of  renovating  them,  and  of 
covering  the  seeds  of  grasses  which  may  be  sown  thereon. 
Ohhis descvipiionisConcklin^s  press-harrow,  fig.  34,  and 
a  somewhat  similar  implement  invented  at  Washington. 
The  common  spiked  roller  is  formed  by  inserting  several 
rows  of  spikes,  of  cast  or  wrought  iron,  in  a  common  hard- 
wood roller.  The  concave,  or  scalloped  roller,  is  adapt- 
ed to  the  form  of  ridges,  and  a  small  one  is  often  at- 
tached to  the  horse  turnip-drill. 

§  5.    The  Cultivator. 

There  are  now  various  implements  in  use  denominated 
Cultivators,  similar  in  their  use,  and  frequently  resembling, 
in  their  construction,  the  horse-hoes  of  Europe.  They 
are  particularly  serviceable  in  the  culture  of  Indian  corn, 
Swedish  turnips,  beans,  and  other  row  and  drilled  crops, 
as  a  substitute  for  the  plough.  By  passing  this  imple- 
ment frequently  between  the  rows,  the  ground  is  kept 
free  from  weeds,  and  in  a  fine  state  of  pulverization,  while 
the  manure  and  vegetable  matter  of  the  sod,  which  have 
been  buried  by  the  plough  in  preparing  for  the  crop,  are 
left  below,  where  they  are  most  efficacious,  and  the  roots 
of  the  plants  are  preserved  from  injury.  The  cultivator 
should  be  passed  through  a  hoed  crop  twice  at  a  dres- 
sing, and  if  the  soil  be  stiff  or  grassy,  it  may  be  passed 
oftener,  or  repeated  at  short  intervals.  The  teeth  are 
of  various  forms,  according  to  the  purpose  for  which  they 
are  used.  One  of  these  forms  is  shown  in  fig.  37.  It 
is  most  convenient  to  have  teeth  of  different  kinds,  for 
instance,  such  as  are  fitted  to  skim  the  surface,  and  de- 
stroy weeds — others  to  break  up  and  pulverize  the  sur- 
face ;  and  others,  again,  to  gather  the  roots  of  quack  and 
other  perennial  pests.     One  of  our  neighbors  has  been 


OPERATIONS    OF   TILLAGE. 


161 


enabled  completely  to  eradicate  quack-grass  in  his  Indian 
corn,  by  the  frequent  use  of  this  implement.     The  dif- 

Fig.  37. 


ferent  kinds  of  teeth  may  be  adapted  to  the  same  frame, 
and  fastened  with  nuts  or  wedges,  and  shifted  in  a  few 
moments.  The  frames  are  generally  made  to  contract 
or  expand  at  pleasure,  so  that  the  implement  may  be 
graduated  to  different  breadths.  They  are  generally 
drawn  by  one  horse. 

§  6.    The  Drill  Barrow. 

Drills  are  used  exclusively  for  sowing  seeds,  and  are 
various  in  their  construction.  They  are  propelled  by 
manual  and  by  horse  power.  The  former  are  denominated 
drill  barrows,  and  are  generally  adapted  to  sowing  single 
rows.  They  are  of  recent  introduction  in  American 
husbandry,  and  their  use  is  principally  confined  to  sow- 
Fig.  38. 


ing  turnips,  beets,  &c.;  and  some  of  them,  under  the 
name  of  corn-planters,  are  employed  in  planting  Indian 


152  ALTERNATION   OF   CROPS. 

corn.  They  are  an  economical  implement  upon  the  farm, 
and  are  particularly  so  where  root  culture  has  obtained 
a  deserved  footing. 

Drills  drawn  by  horses,  and  sowing  ten  or  a  dozen 
rows  at  a  bout,  are  used  to  a  considerable  extent  in  Great 
Britain  ;  and  those  most  familiar  with  their  use,  claim  for 
this  culture  great  advantages  over  the  broadcast  system. 
The  drill  system  enables  the  cultivator  to  keep  his  grounds 
clean,  and  insures  an  augmentation  of  product. 

Fig.  39. 


Fig.  38  is  a  delineation  of  Bement's,  and  fig.  39  of 
an  ordinary  drill  barrow. 


CHAPTER  XV. 


ALTERNATION  OF  CROPS. 


Alternating  crops,  is  to  grow  crops  of  different 
kinds,  and,  as  far  as  practicable,  of  different  habits,  suc- 
cessively in  the  same  field,  as  grain,  roots,  and  grass.  It 
is  an  essential  requisite  in  good  farming,  and  forms  a  part 
of  it,  wherever  the  soil  will  admit  of  it,  and  wherever 
farming  has  arrived  at  any  degree  of  perfection.  It  is 
this  which  gave  to  Flemish  husbandry  a  pre-eminence 
over  that  of  every  other  country,  long  before  the  new 
system  had  obtained  a  footing  in  Great  Britain.  The 
Flemings  insist,  that  land  does  not  require  rest  where  this 
principle  is  adhered  to  ;  and  we  think  it  is  Radcliffe  who 
states,  that  he  saw  the  operations  of  harvesting  the  grain 
crop,  ploughing,  and  sowing  turnips,  going  on  in  the  same 


ALTERNATION  OF   CROPS.  153 

field  simultaneously — the  ground  being  broken  up  and 
sowed  as  fast  as  the  corn  was  cut  and  removed.  In  this 
way  they  often  get  two  crops  in  a  season,  and  very  fre- 
quently three  in  two  years.  It  is  by  alternating  crops, 
that  the  county  of  Norfolk,  and  other  sandy  districts  in 
England,  once  poor  and  unproductive,  have  been  con- 
verted into  the  most  wealthy  and  populous  portions  of 
that  country.  It  is  this  alternating  system  which  has  con- 
tributed, in  a  great  measure,  to  the  astonishing  recent 
improvements  in  the  agriculture  of  Scotland — on  many 
farms  none  of  the  fields  being  kept  in  either  meadow  or 
pasture  more  than  two  years  in  succession.  And  it  is 
this  system  which  constitutes  the  pioneer-marks  of  im- 
proved husbandry  in  our  own  land. 

In  the  preceding  essays,  we  have  suggested  the  impor- 
tance and  the  modes  of  making  our  lands  rich  and  dry, 
and  of  subjecting  them  to  good  tillage.  Let  us  now  in- 
quire under  what  method  of  management  they  are  likely 
to  make  us  the  largest  returns,  without  diminishing  their 
intrinsic  value. 

It  must  be  palpable  to  every  observing  farmer,  that  the 
old  mode  of  dividing  our  farms  into  meadow,  plough,  and 
pasture  lands,  and  of  permanently  using  each  section  for 
one  purpose  only,  is  a  most  wretched  system  of  exhaustion, 
both  to  the  land  and  its  occupant.  The  tillage  ground 
deteriorates,  with  the  scanty  manuring  it  gets,  till  it  ceases 
to  make  a  return  for  the  expense  of  culture,  or  till  it  is 
thrown  into  old  fields  or  commons.  The  grasses  run 
out  in  the  meadow,  and  mosses  and  perennial  weeds  come 
in  ;  the  soil  becomes  too  compact  and  impervious  for  the 
ready  admission  of  the  great  agents  of  vegetable  decom- 
position and  nutrition,  heat  and  air,  and  the  free  extension 
of  the  roots  of  the  finer  grasses  ; — and,  as  all  is  carried 
off,  and  little  or  nothing  brought  back,  the  elements  of 
fertility  become  exhausted,  the  land  annually  becomes 
poorer,  and  the  crops  grow  every  year  lighter.  Nothing 
but  a  triennial  top-dressing  of  manure  or  compost  will 
keep  up  the  fertility  of  perennial  meadows  ;  and  these 
fertilizing  substances  can  seldom  be  spared  from  the  ara- 
ble part,  to  which  they  may  be  applied  with  more  certain 


154  ALTERNATION   OF   CROPS. 

profit.  The  pasture  is  the  only  portion  of  such  a  farm 
that  is  improving  ;  and,  even  in  this,  bushes,  brambles, 
and  noxious  weeds  are  too  often  permitted  to  intrude,  to 
choke  and  destroy  the  better  herbage. 

It  is  equally  apparent,  that  we  cannot  take  two  or  more 
arable  crops,  of  the  same  kind,  from  a  field,  in  successive 
seasons,  without  a  manifest  falling  off"  in  the  product. 
The  reason  of  this  may  be  found  in  an  immutable  law  of 
Nature,  which  has  provided  for  each  species  of  plant  a 
specific  food,  suited  to  its  organization  and  its  wants. 
Thus  some  soils  will  not  grow  wheat,  although  abounding 
in  the  common  elements  of  fertility,  and  although  they 
will  make  a  profitable  return  in  other  farm-crops — in  con- 
sequence of  such  soils  being  deficient  in  the  specific  food 
required  for  the  perfection  of  the  wheat.  The  same  re- 
mark applies  to  other  farm-crops.  One  family  or  species 
of  plants  requires  a  different  food  from  that  which  another 
family  or  species  requires  ;  and  it  seems  to  be  another 
law  of  Nature,  that  what  is  not  essential  to  one  family,  or 
species,  shall  be  left  in  the  soil,  or  returned  to  it  through 
the  excretory  organs  of  the  growing  crop.  Of  course, 
the  specific  food  for  any  class,  or  species,  continues  to 
accumulate  in  the  soil,  the  general  fertility  being  kept  up, 
till  the  return  aga^in  to  the  field  of  this  particular  crop. 
Thus  it  is  supposed  to  require  ten  or  a  dozen  years  for 
the  specific  food  of  flax  sufficiently  to  accumulate  for  a 
second  crop,  after  one  has  been  taken  from  a  field.  Even 
the  specific  food  of  clover  becomes  exhausted  by  a  too 
frequent  repetition  of  it  in  the  same  field  ;  it  being  found 
necessary,  in  Norfolk  husbandry,  to  substitute  for  it,  in 
every  other  four  years'  course  of  crops,  other  grass-seeds, 
so  that  this  may  not  be  repeated  oftener  than  once  in 
eight  years.  In  the  analysis  of  plants,  wheat  is  found  to 
contain  lime,  the  turnip  to  contain  sulphur,  &c.,  and  hence 
we  infer  that  these  elementary  matters  are  essential,  in 
the  soil,  to  the  growth  of  these  crops. 

There  are  exceptions  to  the  rules  of  practice  which 
these  laws  inculcate.  Some  soils  seem  natural  to  wheat, 
others  to  oats,  timothy,  &c.,  and  successive  crops  of 
these  are  taken  without  apparent  diminution  of  produce. 


ALTERNATION   OF   CROPS.  155 

Yet  it  is  better  to  regulate  our  practice  by  general  laws, 
than  by  casual  exceptions.  In  the  cases  noted  as  excep- 
tions, there  is  probably  so  great  an  accumulation  of  the 
specific  food  of  the  particular  crop,  that  it  has  not  been 
exhausted^  though  it  evidently  must  have  been  diminished. 
It  is  in  accordance  with  the  natural  laws  we  have  noticed, 
that  the  grasses  in  our  meadows  run  out  or  change  ;  that 
the  timber-trees  of  the  forest  alternate — new  species 
springing  up  as  the  old  ones  decay,  or  are  cut  off;  and 
it  is  in  accordance  with  these  laws  that  the  alternation  of 
crops  has  been  adopted  in  all  good  farming. 

To  simphfy  and  render  the  subject  more  plain,  the 
generality  of  tillage  crops  have  been  grouped  into  two 
classes,  differing  essentially  in  their  character,  culture, 
and  influence  upon  the  soil.  These  two  classes  are  de- 
nominated culmiferous  crops,  and  leguminous  crops.  The 
first  is  so  named  from  culm,  the  stock  or  stem  of  grains 
or  grasses,  usually  jointed  and  hollow,  and  supporting  the 
leaves  and  fructification.  Our  intention  is  here  not  to 
include  the  grasses.  Culmiferous  crops  are  termed  rob- 
bers or  exhausters  of  the  soil.  This  class  includes 
wheat,  barley,  oats,  rye,  Indian  corn,  tobacco,  cotton, 
&c.  These  are  particularly  exhausting  during  the  pro- 
cess of  maturing  their  seeds.  If  cut  green,  or  when  in 
blossom,  they  are  far  less  exhausting.  Leguminous  crops, 
strictly,  are  peas,  beans,  and  other  pulse  ;  but  here  the 
group  is  intended  to  embrace,  besides,  all  that  are  con- 
sidered amehorating  or  enriching  crops,  as  potatoes,  tur- 
nips, carrots,  beets,  cabbages,  and  clover.  These  last 
are  not  only  less  exhausting  than  the  culmiferous  class, 
as  but  few  of  them  mature  their  seeds,  and  all,  on  ac- 
count of  their  broad  system  of  leaves,  draw  more  nourish- 
ment from  the  atmosphere  than  the  narrow-leaved  plants 
of  the  other  class,  but  they  tend  to  improve  the  condition 
of  the  soil,  by  dividing  and  loosening  it,  with  their  tap 
and  bulbous  roots.  For  these  reasons  they  are  called 
ameliorating  crops  ;  and  as  they  generally  receive  manure, 
and  are  cultivated  with  the  horse  or  hand-hoe,  they  are 
peculiarly  adapted  to  fit  the  soil  for  the  culmiferous  group 
of  crops. 


156  ALTERNATION  OF   CROPS. 

There  is  another  distinguishing  feature  between  the 
culmiferous  and  leguminous  classes  we  have  named — the 
form  of  their  roots.  The  first  are  generally  fibrous-rooted, 
are  more  divided,  spread  themselves  near  the  surface, 
and  draw  their  nourishment  principally  from  the  upper 
stratum  of  the  soil.  The  leguminous  group  are  generally 
spindle  or  tap-rooted,  with  few  radicles,  and  consequently 
draw  most  of  their  nourishment  from  the  lower  stratum 
of  the  soil,  and  through  the  lower  extremities  of  their 
roots.  Plants,  says  Chaptal,  exhaust  only  that  portion 
of  the  soil  which  comes  in  contact  with  their  roots  ;  and 
a  spindle  root  may  be  able  to  draw  an  abundance  of  nour- 
ishment from  land,  the  surface  of  which  has  been  exhaust- 
ed by  short  or  creeping  roots.  The  roots  of  plants  of 
the  same  or  analogous  species,  continues  the  same  writer, 
always  take  a  like  direction,  if  situated  in  a  soil  which  al- 
lows them  a  free  developement  ;  and  thus  they  pass 
through,  and  are  supported  by,  the  same  layers  of  earth. 
For  this  reason  we  seldom  find  trees  prosper  that  take 
the  place  of  others  of  the  same  species,  unless  a  suitable 
period  has  been  allowed  for  producing  the  decomposition 
of  the  roots  of  the  first,  and  thus  supplying  the  earth  with 
fresh  manure. 

Good  husbandry,  therefore,  enjoins,  that  culmiferous 
and  leguminous  crops  should  follow  each  other  in  suc- 
cession, except  where  grass  is  made  to  intervene  ;  and  it 
matters  little  what  crops  are  selected  from  the  two  classes. 
The  good  judgement  of  the  farmer  may  be  here  exercised 
to  determine  which  are  likely  to  be  to  him  the  most  ad- 
vantageous. It  may  be  proper  to  note  two  exceptions 
to  this  rule  :  Indian  corn  may,  under  certain  contingen- 
cies, be  made  to  follow  a  small-grain  crop  to  advantage, 
and  oats  may  be  sometimes  sown,  as  a  fallow  crop,  upon 
a  grass  ley ;  as  a  fallow  crop  to  precede  wheat  or  rye, 
and  to  supersede  a  naked  fallow.  Some  soils,  it  is  true, 
are  better  suited  to  one  kind  of  crop  than  another  ;  as, 
for  instance,  calcareous  clays,  and  strong  loams,  are  better 
adapted  to  wheat  than  silicious  gravels  and  sands  ;  while 
the  latter  are  better  fitted  to  Indian  corn,  turnips,  clover, 
and  other  tap-rooted  plants,  than  clays.     And  where  In- 


ALTERNATION   OF   CROPS.  157 

dian  corn  is  to  succeed  small  grains,  we  venture  to  recom- 
mend the  sowing  of  clover  with  the  small-grain  crop.  It 
far  more  than  compensates,  to  the  corn  crop,  the  ex- 
pense of  seed  and  sowing,  and  gives,  withal,  much  au- 
tumn pasture.  In  other  respects,  such  as  the  exhaustion 
of  the  soil,  it  is  a  matter  of  little  interest  with  the  farmer, 
what  crops  of  each  class  are  chosen  to  alternate  with  each 
other. 

Farm-stock  seems  necessarily  to  be  embraced  in  the 
system  of  alternate  husbandry.  Cattle  convert  the  bulky 
products  of  the  farm  into  meat,  butter,  cheese,  wool,  &c. 
These  concentrated  products  are  carried  to  market  at  com- 
paratively trifling  expense.  Catde,  which  furnish  labor, 
and  convert  into  manure  the  stalks,  straw,  coarse  hay, 
and  other  ofFal  litter  of  the  farm,  are  necessary  to  keep  up 
its  fertility  ;  for  without  manure  the  soil  will  grow  poor, 
and  its  products  annually  diminish.  Manures,  we  repeat, 
are  a  main  source  of  fertility  and  of  wealth, — they  are 
the  substantial  food  of  our  crops.  Lime,  and  gypsum, 
and  other  extraneous  matters,  are  good  as  auxiliaries, 
but  none  of  these  can  be  depended  on,  as  means  of  fer- 
tility, without  the  efficient  aid  of  dung.  This  is  the 
bread — the  "  staff  of  life,"  to  our  farm-crops.  Our  sup- 
ply of  this  essential  requisite  will  depend  on  the  amount 
of  stock  we  feed  upon  the  farm  ;  and  the  amount  of 
stock  we  can  keep  profitably,  will  again  depend  upon  the 
fertility  of  the  soil,  and  the  abundance  of  its  products. 
So  that  grain,  and  grass,  and  root,  and  cattle  husbandry, 
are  reciprocally  and  highly  beneficial  to  each  other.  It 
is  maintained,  by  practical  men,  that  grounds  under  good 
tillage  will  yield  as  much  cattle-food,  in  roots,  straw,  &c., 
as  the  same  grounds  would  yield  in  grass,  thus  leaving 
the  grain  as  extra  profit. 

The  subject  of  clover,  which  we  have  classed  with 
ameliorating  crops,  merits  a  further  and  distinct  no- 
tice. 

We  find  that  clover  was  cultivated  at  an  early  period 

by  the  Flemings,  and  constituted  an  important  item  in 

their  excellent  system  of  husbandry.      Its    introduction 

into  British  husbandry  is  of  comparatively  modern  date. 

14  XV. 


158  ALTERNATION   OF   CROPS. 

Forty  years  ago  its  culture  may  be  said  to  have  com- 
menced in  the  United  Stales  ;  but  its  progress  was  slow 
till  within  the  last  few  years  ;  and  even  now,  the  farmers 
of  large  portions  of  our  country  are  practically  ignorant 
of  its  improving  and  enriching  qualities.  Its  benefits  have 
been  great  wherever  it  has  been  introduced,  accompanied 
with  the  use  of  gypsum  ;  and  the  two  combined  have  done 
much  to  improve  our  husbandry.  But  their  benefits  are 
capable  of  being  much  more  widely  extended. 

Clover  is  less  exhausting  to  the  soil  than  almost  any 
other  crop.  It  derives  much  nourishment  from  the  at- 
mosphere ;  and  its  tap-roots,  penetrating  the  soil  to  a 
great  depth,  break  and  pulverize  it,  and  fit  it  admirably 
for  the  reception  of  tillage  crops.  We  consider  the  use 
of  clover  as  cattle-food,  great  as  it  is,  but  of  secondary 
importance  to  the  farmer — its  most  profitable  uses  being 
to  feed  crops  and  furnish  seed.  No  green  crop  is  so  ser- 
viceable as  manure  ;  and  the  second  crop  of  the  early 
variety  may  be  profitably  preserved  for  seed.     We  have 

recorded  in  the  Cultivator  the  practice  of  Mr. , 

of  Tompkins  county,  who  has  converted  a  poor  farm 
into  one  of  great  productiveness,  almost  entirely  by  the 
judicious  use  of  clover.  He  sows  the  seed  liberally, 
preferring  the  early  or  southern  variety.  This  he  feeds 
till  the  20th  of  June,  or,  if  it  is  to  be  mown,  he  cuts  it 
by  the  25th  of  that  month.  He  then  leaves  it  for  a  sec- 
ond or  seed  crop ;  and  after  this  is  off,  he  generally  turns 
up  the  ley  for  a  winter  or  spring  crop.  Thus  the  first 
crop  serves  to  feed  his  cattle  ;  the  second  serves  the 
double  purpose  of  feeding  his  cattle  and  filling  his  purse, 
for  the  average  product  of  an  acre  is  four  or  five  bushels 
of  seed,  worth  ordinarily  from  thirty  to  fifty  dollars,  and 
the  stems  are  carefully  saved,  and  serve  for  cattle-food 
and  litter  ;  while  the  roots  and  foliage  left  upon  the  field 
go  to  fertilize  it  for  the  next  crop. 

We  can  quote  no  better  authority  than  Chaptal,  a  dis- 
tinguished chemist,  and  a  practical  farmer  upon  a  broad 
scale,  in  support  of  the  alternating  system.      He  says, 

"  Artificial  grass  lands  (constituting  a  part  of  the  alter- 
nating system  of  husbandry,  and  in  contradistinction  to 


ALTERNATION   OF  CROPS.  159 

natural  and  permanent  grass  lands)  ought  now  to  be 
considered  as  forming  the  basis  of  agricuhure.  These 
furnish  fodder,  the  fodder  supports  cattle,  and  the  cattle 
furnish  manure,  labor,  and  all  the  means  necessary  to  a 
thorough  system  of  cultivation." 

In  order  to  show  the  contrast  which  exists  in  the  pro- 
ducts of  farms,  under  the  new  and  old  systems  of  hus- 
bandry, we  quote  two  cases  of  products  under  the  new 
system.  In  neither  of  these  cases  were  the  lands  of 
great  natural  fertility.  The  first  farm  is  situated  on  a 
sandy  pine  plain,  which  until  lately  was  considered  of 
little  value  for  husbandry.  Forty  years  ago  these  lands 
sold  for  three  dollars  an  acre.  They  now  sell  at  fifty  to 
one  hundred  dollars  an  acre.  The  other  farm  lies  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Poughi^eepsie,  and,  if  we  are  correct 
in  our  recollections,  a  part  of  it  was  in  old  field,  or  com- 
mons, in  1801-2. 

Samuel  T.  Vary's  farm  hes  on  the  Kinderhook  plains. 
There  are  145  acres  under  cultivation.  It  was  worked 
in  1835  by  Mr.  Vary  and  his  sons.  His  total  expendi- 
ture, that  is,  money  laid  out  for  his  family  and  farm, 
amounted  to  $385  75.  After  speaking  of  the  depreda- 
tions of  the  wire-worm,  early  and  late  frosts,  and  other 
drawbacks  with  which  farmers  are  ever  afflicted,  Mr. 
Vary  proceeds  to  give  the  following  statement  of  the 

Products  and  Sales  of  the  Farm  in  1835. 

12  calves, $37  89 

196  lbs.  butter,  at  20  cents,   .  .          .        39  20 

1542  "  cheese,  at  8  cents,  .          .          123  36 

30  lambs,  at  155.            .          .  .          .56  25 

850  bushels  oats,  at  52  cents,  .          .         442  00 

375      do.      potatoes,  at  25  cents,  .        93  75 

20  tons  hay,  at  $15  per  ton,  .          .          300  00 

72  bushels  onions,  at  50  cents,  .          .        36  00 

500      do.    corn,  at  84  cents,  .          .          420  00 

220     do.    wheat,  at  $1  50,  .          .     330  00 

4  cows,  beef,                        .  .          .            69  00 

2  oxen  and  2  steers,  do.          .  .          .130  00 

7  shoats,         ...  .          .            17  00 


160  ALTERNATION   OF  CROPS. 

1440  lbs.  pork,  at  7  cents,     .  .  .   $100  80 

22  wethers,  at  $4  each,      ...  88  00 

Total  value, $2,283  25 

Deduct  money  paid  out,  .  .  .     385  75 

Leaving  a  balance  of  .         .  $1,897  50 

See  Cultivator,  vol.  ii.  p.  181. 

The  other  case  is  that  of  Mr.  David  Harris,  the  de- 
tails of  which  are  also  given  in  the  Cultivator,  vol.  iii. 
p.  30.  Mr.  Harris  cultivated  143  acres.  He  gives  the 
following  as  the  proceeds  of  his  farm  in  1835. 


190  bushels  of  wheat,  at  $1  25, 

.      $237  50 

165       "       of  rye,  at  94  cents. 

155  10 

325        "        of  corn,  at  75  cents. 

243  75 

900       "       of  oats,  at  50  cents, 

450  00 

27         "       of  buckwheat,  at  50  cents. 

13  50 

7  live  shoats,            .... 

40  00 

1200  lbs.  pork,  at  7  cents,     . 

84  00 

3  calves,          ..... 

9  50 

90  tons  of  hay,  at  $22, 

1,980  00 

Advance  on  26  sheep. 

65  00 

60  bushels  potatoes,  at  25  cents, 

.        15  00 

$3,293  35 

The  amount  of  sales  from  the  above. 

100  bushels  of  wheat,  at  $1  25, 

.     $125  00 

165       "       of  rye,  at  94  cents. 

155  10 

209       ''       of  corn,  at  78  cents. 

.        163  02 

700       "       of  oats,  at  50  cents. 

350  00 

7  live  hogs,          .... 

40  00 

3  calves,           ..... 

9  50 

75  tons  of  hay. 

.  1,762  50 

Advance  on  26  sheep. 

65  00 

Received  for  pasture  and  feed,  exclusive 

of  my  own  stock. 

.       60  00 

$2,730  12 

Expenses  for  labor,  &c.  on  the  farm, 

275  00 

Nett  profit,  ....         $2,455  12 


ALTERNATION   OF   CROPS.  161 

Thus  Mr.  Vary's  farm  afforded  him  a  nett  annual  profit 
of  about  $13  OS  per  acre,  over  and  above  the  amount 
paid  out  for  his  family,  and  for  farm-labor,  &c.,  and  Mr. 
Harris's  gave  him  a  nett  profit  of  about  $17  16  per  acre, 
over  and  above  his  farm-expenses. 

A  strong  argument  in  favor  of  alternating  crops  may  be 
drawn  from  the  alternations  which  are  naturally  going  on 
in  forests,  and  in  permanent  meadows,  and  from  the  hab- 
its of  many  plants,  in  sending  abroad  roots  and  stollens, 
to  establish  a  progeny  in  fresh,  unexhausted  soil.  Thus,  in 
forest  lands,  the  new  growth  seldom  resembles  altogether 
that  which  has  been  felled.  Hard  wood  frequently  suc- 
ceeds the  pine  and  hemlock,  while  the  pine  and  cedar,  in 
innumerable  instances,  succeed  the  primitive  growth  of 
hard  wood.  The  raspberry  and  the  strawberry  soon  ex- 
haust the  soil  of  specific  food,  and  Nature  has  endowed 
these  plants  with  the  power  of  virtually  changing  their 
location,  by  means  of  roots  and  stollens,  and  of  annually 
renewing  their  vigor  from  the  resources  of,  to  them,  a 
virgin  soil.  And  even  the  delicate  stoloniferous  rose  is 
constantly  changing  its  location  in  this  way,  and  droops 
and  declines,  in  three  or  four  years,  if  confined  to  a  sin- 
gle spot.  With  herbaceous  plants  which  die  and  decay 
where  they  grow,  this  disposition  to  change  does  not  ex- 
ist in  so  great  a  degree — because  they  annually  return 
again  to  the  soil,  and  furnish  the  specific  food  for  a  new 
generation  of  their  species.  So  general  is  this  law  of 
alternation,  that  it  has  become  a  well-settled  opinion  among 
British  farmers,  that  even  our  common  biennial  clover 
should  not  be  sown  oftener  than  at  intervals  of  six  or  eight 
years  upon  the  same  field,  its  tendency,  in  common  with 
other  plants,  being  to  exhaust  a  specific  property  of  the  soil. 

We  will  close  this  essay  with  quoting,  from  Chaptal, 
the  principles  which  he  lays  down  in  regard  to  the  alter- 
nating system  of  husbandry,  and  the  conclusion  he  draws 
from  them.     His  principles  are — 

"  1.   All  plants  exhaust  the  soil. 

''2.   All  plants  do  not  exhaust  the  soil  equally. 

"  3.   Plants  of  different  kinds  do  not  exhaust  the  soil 
in  the  same  manner. 
14* 


162  ALTERNATION   OF   CROPS. 

*'4.  All  plants  do  not  restore  to  the  soil  either  the 
same  quantity  or  quality  of  manure. 

'^5.   All  plants  do  not  feed  the  soil  equally." 

And  from  these  principles  he  deduces  the  following 
conclusions  : — 

''  1.  That,  however  well  prepared  a  soil  may  be,  it 
cannot  nourish  a  long  succession  of  crops  without  being 
exhausted. 

^'2.  Each  harvest  empoverishes  the  soil  to  a  certain 
extent,  depending  upon  the  degree  of  nourishment  which 
it  restores  to  the  earth. 

''  3.  The  cultivation  of  spindle  roots  ought  to  succeed 
that  of  running  and  superficial  roots. 

"4.  It  is  necessary  to  avoid  returning  too  soon  to  the 
cultivation  of  the  same,  or  to  analogous  kinds  of  vegeta- 
bles, in  the  same  soil. 

"5.  It  is  very  unwise  to  allow  two  kinds  of  plants, 
which  admit  of  the  ready  growth  of  weeds  among  them, 
to  be  raised  in  succession. 

"6.  Those  plants  that  derive  their  principal  support 
from  the  soil,  should  not  be  sown,  except  when  the  soil 
is  sufficiently  provided  with  manure. 

"  7.  When  the  soil  exhibits  symptoms  of  exhaustion, 
from  successive  harvests,  the  cultivation  of  those  plants 
that  restore  most  to  the  soil  must  be  resorted  to. 

"  These  principles  are  confirmed  by  experience  ;  they 
form  the  basis  of  a  system  of  agriculture,  rich  in  its  pro- 
ducts, but  more  rich  in  its  economy,  by  the  diminution 
of  the  usual  quantity  of  labor  and  manure.  All  cultiva- 
tors ought  to  be  governed  by  them  ;  but  their  application 
must  be  modified  by  the  nature  of  soils  and  climates,  and 
the  particular  wants  of  each  locality." — Chemistry  applied 
to  Agriculture. 


ROOT  CULTURE.  163 

CHAPTER  XVI. 

ROOT    CULTURE. 

The  advantages  of  root  culture  to  the  soil,  in  the  al- 
ternating system,  have  already  been  briefly  alluded  to  ;  but 
this  culture  possesses  higher  claims  to  our  notice  than  the 
bare  influence  it  has  in  ameliorating  the  soil  :  it  consti- 
tutes, otherwise,  by  far  the  best  means  of  economically 
feeding  and  fattening  farm-stock,  and  adds  greatly  to  the 
means  of  fertilizing  the  soil.  It  trebles  the  amount  of 
cattle-food,  and  doubles  the  quantity  of  manure.  It  more- 
over may  be  made  to  supply  a  large  portion  of  human 
food.  Potatoes  constitute  a  great  portion  of  the  bread 
and  meat  of  the  Irish  peasantry — and  there  are  no  people 
more  hale  and  robust  than  the  Irish — feed  their  cows,  fat- 
ten their  pigs  and  poultry,  and  form  an  article  of  foreign 
commerce.  The  turnip  has  long  been  an  important  crop 
in  Germany.  The  beet  culture  in  France  now  furnishes 
annually  a  hundred  millions  of  pounds  of  sugar,  for  human 
consumption  ;  while  the  refuse  of  the  crop  enables  the 
French  to  enjoy  the  luxury  of  good  beef  and  good  mut- 
ton, which  were  scarce  commodities  with  them  before  the 
beet  culture  was  introduced.  The  field  culture  of  the 
carrot  has  long  been  profitably  adopted  in  Flanders.  In 
the  culinary,  or  kitchen  department,  the  liberal  use  of 
roots  has  in  a  measure  become  indispensable  to  whole- 
some diet ;  and  while  they  are  grateful  to  the  palate,  and 
promotive  of  health,  they  greatly  economize  the  expense 
of  bread  and  meat.  In  British  husbandry,  the  introduc- 
tion of  root  culture  has  been  considered  as  important  in 
increasing  the  products  of  the  soil,  as  the  application  of 
steam  has  been  to  the  improvement  of  the  manufacturing 
arts.  We  will  quote  here  a  passage  from  the  New  Edin- 
burgh Encyclopedia  in  confirmation  of  this  fact. 

'"'•  The  introduction  of  turnips  into  the  husbandry  of 
Britain,"  says  this  respectable  work,  "  occasioned  one  of 


164  ROOT   CULTURE. 

those  revolutions  in  rural  art  which  are  constantly  occur- 
ring among  husbandmen,  and,  though  the  revolution  came 
on  with  slow  and  gradual  steps,  yet  it  may  now  be  viewed 
as  completely  and  thoroughly  established.  Before  the 
introduction  of  this  root,  it  was  impossible  to  cultivate 
light  soils  successfully,  or  to  derive  suitable  rotations  for 
cropping  them  with  advantage.  It  was  also  a  difficult 
task  to  support  live  stock  through  the  winter  and  spring 
months  ;  and  as  for  feeding  and  fatting  cattle  and  sheep 
for  naarket,  during  these  inclement  seasons,  the  practice 
was  hardly  thought  of,  and  still  more  rarely  attempted, 
unless  when  a  full  stock  of  hay  was  provided,  which  only 
happened  in  a  very  few  instances.  The  benefits  derived 
from  the  turnip  husbandry  are,  therefore,  of  great  magni- 
tude :  light  soils  are  now  cultivated  with  profit  and  facil- 
ity ;  abundance  of  food  is  provided  for  man  and  beast  ; 
the  earth  is  turned  to  the  uses  for  which  it  is  physically 
calculated  ;  and,  by  being  suitably  cleaned  with  this  pre- 
paratory crop,  a  bed  is  provided  for  grass-seeds,  wherein 
they  flourish  and  prosper  with  greater  vigor  than  after  any 
other  preparation." 

Few  of  our  farmers  are  probably  apprized  of  the  fact, 
that  English  beef  and  mutton,  so  highly  extolled,  and  of 
which  John  Bull  so  vauntingly  boasts — and  perhaps  no 
people  have  better — is  mostly  winter-fattened,  without 
the  addition  of  any  sort  of  grain,  upon  roots  and  straw. 

All  of  the  field-cultivated  roots  are  found  well  adapted 
to  our  soil  and  climate  ;  and  where  their  culture  has  been 
undertaken  with  spirit,  and  managed  with  judgement,  it 
has  been  fully  demonstrated,  that  labor  and  capital  cannot 
be  more  profitably  applied  in  any  other  department  of 
husbandry,  than  it  can  be  in  this.  It  gives  the  most  cat- 
tle-food and  most  manure,  important  items  in  the  econo- 
my of  the  farm,  and  leaves  the  soil  in  excellent  order  for 
grain  and  grass-seeds.  The  great  obstacle  to  root  cul- 
ture, other  than  the  potato  crop,  has  been,  the  labor  which 
is  required  to  secure  the  roots  from  the  frosts  of  winter  ; 
and  yet  the  labor  and  expense  required  for  this  purpose, 
are  perhaps  no  greater  than  we  expend  in  securing  our 
grain  and  forage,  if  they  are  so  great.     Where  cellars  are 


ROOT  CULTURE.  165 

not  adequate — and  they  may  be  constructed  under  barns 
with  advantage — these  roots  may  all  be  securely  preserved 
in  pits,  in  dry  situations,  due  precaution  being  had  to  cov- 
ering and  ventilation.  We  do  save  potatoes,  and  we  can 
save  other  roots  in  the  same  way.  It  is  the  novelty  of 
the  labor,  rather  than  the  amount  of  it,  and  a  want  of 
practical  knowledge  in  their  culture  and  preservation, 
which  intimidate  and  deter  very  many.  It  has  been 
demonstrated,  in  repeated  experiments  made  in  our  coun- 
try, that  labor  is  more  profitably  bestowed  upon  root 
crops,  if  judiciously  apphed,  and  the  profits  of  the  land  are 
greater,  than  in  most  of  the  other  crops  that  we  cultivate. 
Assuming  the  average  product  of  hay  at  a  ton  and  a  half 
to  two  tons  per  acre,  and  of  beets  and  ruta  baga  at  600 
bushels — and  allowing  a  bushel  and  a  half  of  the  latter 
(90  lbs.)  to  be  equivalent,  for  farm-stock,  to  20  lbs.  of 
hay,  an  acre  of  the  roots  will  go  as  far  in  the  economy  of 
feeding,  as  nearly  three  acres  of  meadow,  to  say  nothing 
of  the  tops,  which  are  excellent  food,  and  which  will,  at 
least  in  a  great  part,  compensate  for  the  extra  expense  of 
culture.  These  roots,  besides,  may  be  used  as  a  substi- 
tute for  grain,  to  working  horses  and  oxen,  and  for  pigs. 
The  three  acres  of  grass  are  found  to  give  less  than  9,000 
lbs.  to  the  dung-yard,  while  the  one  acre  of  ruta  baga,  or 
beets,  gives  36,000  lbs.,  or  four  times  as  much  as  the 
three  acres  of  grass  land. 

Five  things  are  essential  in  the  culture  of  root  crops  : 
first,  a  dry  soil  ;  second,  a  rich  soil  ;  third,  a  deep  soil  ; 
fourth,  a  well-pulverized  soil  ;  and,  fifth,  good  after-culture. 
The  crop  will  be  abundant  in  proportion  as  these  several 
requisites  are  regarded,  and  deficient  in  proportion  as  they 
are  neglected. 

By  a  dry  soil,  we  mean  a  soil  that  is  not  wet.  Moisture 
is  beneficial  to  all  crops,  and  is  indeed  indispensable  to 
their  growth  ;  but  water  is  detrimental  to  all  root  crops, 
though  it  repose  upon  the  subsoil,  or  appear  but  occa- 
sionally upon  the  surface.  Hence,  when  roots  are 
to  be  grown  upon  soils  that  are  tenacious  or  flat,  or 
upon  those  which  repose  upon  an  impervious  subsoil,  the 
land  should  either  be  previously  under-drained,  or  should 


166 


ROOT  CULTURE. 


be  thrown  into  ridges,  and  the  furrows  kept  open  for  the 
free  passage  of  the  water  in  heavy  rains. 

A  rich  soil  is  as  essential  to  good  crops,  and  particu- 
larly to  root  crops,  as  nourishing  and  abundant  food  is  to 
the  fattening  of  farm-stock.  We  all  know  that  lean  pas- 
ture and  coarse  forage,  although  they  may  keep,  will  not 
fatten  cattle.  It  is  equally  true,  that  although  farm-crops 
will  live  and  grow  upon  a  poor  soil,  the  product  and  profit 
will  be  great  only  on  a  rich  one.  The  advantage  to  the 
crop,  as  well  as  to  the  animal,  will  be  in  proportion  to  the 
quantity  of  organic  matter  which  is  converted  into  living 
organic  matter — into  vegetables  and  into  meat.  Mere 
earthy  matters  enter  but  minutely,  or  adventitiously,  into 
the  structure  of  either.  Hence  the  maxim,  verified  by 
long  experience,  that  it  is  better  to  cultivate  one  acre  of 
rich  land  than  three  acres  of  poor  land.  The  expense 
of  cultivating  the  latter  is  threefold  that  of  the  former, 
while  the  product  of  the  one  rich  acre,  is  often  equal  to 
the  product  of  the  three  poor  acres.  Ordinarily  speaking, 
a  good  dressing  of  manure  will  double  the  products  of  a 
root  crop.  To  illustrate  this  fact  more  fully,  we  quote 
the  following  tabular  statement  from  Arthur  Young's 
experiments  with  potatoes.  It  is  unnecessary  to  add, 
that  Mr.  Young  was  one  of  the  most  intelligent  and  care- 
ful agriculturists  of  the  last  generation.  The  prepara- 
tion and  culture  were  alike  in  all  the  cases  noted  below, 
except  that  in  those  marked  with  an  asterisk  (*)  the  crop 
was  manured,  and  in  the  others  the  crop  was  not  ma- 
nured. 


Preceding 

Expense. 

Product 

, 

Profit. 

Loss. 

^ 

crops. 

£. 

s.        d. 

bushels 

£.  s.    d. 

s.     d. 

1 

Fallow,     . 

3 

19     1 

104  at  Is. 

6d. 

2  18     5 

0    0 

2 

Barley,    . 

4 

5     9 

128       2 

0 

3  11    10 

0    0 

3 

Wheat,    . 

6 

13     6 

46      0 

20 

0    0     0 

0    0 

4* 

Do.  .  . 

7 

16   10 

101       0 

20 

2    5     6 

0    0 

5 

Do.  .  . 

6 

2     6 

39      0 

20 

0    7     6 

0    0 

6 

Do.  .  . 

7 

19     4 

63      0 

20 

0  16   11 

0    0 

7* 

Do.  .  . 

4 

14     5 

170      0 

20 

9    2     0 

0    0 

8 

Do.  .  . 

8 

9     3 

30      0 

20 

0    0     0 

15    6 

9* 

Do.  .  . 

4 

12     1 

201       0 

20 

112     9 

0    0 

ROOT   CULTURE.  167 

The  three  manured  crops,  it  will  be  seen,  gave  an 
aggregate  product  of  472  bushels,  and  an  aggregate  nett 
profit  of  £22  10.?.  3t/.,  ($99  90,  say  $100  ;)  the  three 
adjoining  plats,  treated  like  the  others  in  all  respects  but 
manuring,  gave  an  aggregate  nett  product  of  132  bushels, 
and  an  aggregate  nett  profit  of  but  Ss.  lid.,  ($1  96,  say 
$2  ;)  thus  showing  that  the  manure,  in  these  cases,  pro- 
duced an  absolute  gain  of  $98,  and  that  where  it  was 
not  used,  there  was  a  mere  nominal  profit  of  two  dollars. 
These  facts  will  serve  to  show  the  reader,  first,  the  great 
value  of  manure  in  farming  operations,  and  to  stimulate 
him  to  save  and  economize  it  ;  and,  secondly,  to  show 
him  the  propriety  of  always  manuring  his  potato  and 
other  root  crops,  which  are  equally  benefited  by  the  ap- 
plication, except  a  heavy  dressing  has  been  given  to  the 
preceding  crop,  for  which,  it  is  now  generally  admitted, 
the  unfermenled  dung  of  the  stables  and  cattle-yards  is 
best  fitted. 

A  deep-worked  soil  is  necessary,  for  all  but  the  potato 
crop,  and  even  to  this  it  is  highly  beneficial, — that  the 
tap-roots  of  the  beet,  carrot,  and  turnip  may  not  only 
penetrate  freely,  and  increase  their  length  and  their  vol- 
ume, but  that  their  radicles — their  mouths — which  are 
principally  upon  their  lower  extremities,  may  there  find 
food  for  the  parent  plant.  Even  the  turnip  and  the  pota- 
to, in  a  deep  tilth,  send  down  their  roots  to  a  great  depth, 
for  food  and  moisture.  This  may  be  seen  upon  the  bor- 
ders of  a  field  where  the  soil  has  been  superficially 
ploughed,  and  where  the  product  is  always  inferior,  and 
most  liable  to  suffer  from  drought. 

The  pulverization  of  the  soil  is  essential  to  the  ger- 
mination of  the  seed,  to  the  ready  extension  of  the  roots, 
to  the  free  circulation  in  it  of  air  and  moisture,  and  the 
admission  of  solar  heat,  all  contributing  to  prepare  and 
transmit  the  food  to  the  growing  plants.  If  the  soil  is 
lumpy,  or  coarse,  and  does  not  come  in  close  contact 
with  tlie  seed,  to  keep  it  moist,  the  seed  cannot  germi- 
nate ;  the  roots  cannot  freely  extend  in  search  of  food  ; 
nor  can  this  food  be  properly  prepared,  and  transmitted 
to  the  plant,  unless  the  soil  be  so  pulverized  as  to  permit 


168  ROOT   CULTURE. 

the  free  circulation  of  air  and  moisture  through  all  its  in- 
terstices, and  through  its  mass.  The  air  and  dews,  we 
repeat,  are  charged  with  the  elements  of  fertility,  and  the 
more  freely  they  are  permitted  to  penetrate  the  soil,  the 
more  benefit  will  they  impart  to  the  crop. 

Good  after-culture  implies,  the  keeping  of  the  ground 
free  from  weeds,  which  rob  the  crop  of  its  food,  thinning 
the  plants  to  a  proper  distance,  and  keeping  the  surface 
mellow,  or  open  to  atmospheric  influence.  If  the  soil  is 
dry,  and  rich,  and  deep,  and  well  pulverized,  the  labors 
of  the  husbandman  will  yet  not  avail  much,  in  root  crops, 
if  he  neglects  either  to  destroy  weeds,  to  thin,  when  ne- 
cessary, his  plants,  or  to  keep  the  surface  loose  and 
open.  But  these  latter  requisites  to  success  may  easily 
be  got  along  with,  if  they  are  attended  to  in  time,  and  with 
proper  implements.  The  potato  ground  should  be  well 
harrowed,  to  destroy  all  the  young  weeds,  and  to  pulver- 
ize the  surface,  before  the  shoots  have  all  broke  ground. 
It  may  afterwards  be  almost  wholly  managed  with  the 
plough  and  cultivator.  The  beet,  carrot,  and  ruta  baga, 
if  sown,  as  they  should  be,  in  rows,  should  be  cleaned  in 
like  manner,  and  for  like  purpose,  with  the  cultivator,  as 
soon  as  the  rows  of  the  young  plants  can  be  readily  dis- 
tinguished. One  hour's  labor,  in  this  way,  will  destroy 
more  small  weeds,  and  correspondingly  benefit  the  crop, 
than  three  hours'  labor  will  effect  upon  large  weeds.  It 
is  easier  to  destroy  the  acorn,  than  it  is  to  eradicate  the 
oak.  To  crowd  plants,  is  like  overstocking  a  pasture, 
or  endeavoring  to  make  fat  animals  from  half  rations  of 
food.  It  is  dividing  among  many  that  food  which  is  re- 
quired to  perfect  one.  It  moreover  tends  to  exclude 
light,  heat,  and  a  free  circulation  of  air,  essential  to  the 
developement  of  vegetables,  and  the  perfection  of  their 
growth.  Hence  a  moderate  number  of  plants  will  give  a 
better  product  than  a  great  many,  upon  the  same  ground, 
in  a  crowded  situation.  This  is  a  hard  lesson  to  teach 
to  some  farmers,  in  regard  to  root  crops. 


FALLOW  CROPS  AND  NAKED  FALLOWS.     169 

CHAPTER  XVII. 

ON  SUBSTITUTING  FALLOW  CROPS  FOR  NAKED  FALLOWS. 

The  practice,  under  the  old  system  of  husbandry,  has 
been,  to  plough  up  grass  grounds  in  June,  July,  and  Au- 
gust, for  winter  grain  ;  to  cross-plough  and  harrow  suc- 
cessively, and  to  sow  upon  them  in  September  and 
October.  In  England  the  ground  was  ploughed  the 
preceding  autumn,  and  the  ploughings  and  harrowings 
repeated  during  the  succeeding  summer  till  seed-time. 
The  effect  of  this  system  was,  the  loss  of  the  ground  for 
a  season,  an  unnecessary  outlay  of  labor,  and  the  wasting 
of  a  great  portion  of  the  fertilizing  matters  of  the  sward, 
by  turning  it  repeatedly  up  to  the  surface.  These  labors 
and  losses  are  in  a  measure  superseded,  by  substituting 
fallow  crops,  that  is,  by  taking  a  crop  after  one  ploughing, 
upon  the  inverted  sward.  While  this  is  growing,  the  sod 
is  decomposing,  the  repeated  ploughings  are  saved,  the 
field  is  turned  to  profit,  the  tilth  is  in  fine  condition  the 
next  fall  or  spring,  for  small  grains,  and  the  soil  receives 
all  the  benefit  of  the  fertilizing  properties  of  the  sod. 
Old  swards,  especially  if  the  soil  is  stiff",  are  ploughed  deep 
late  in  autumn,  and  receive  a  superficial  furrow,  or  a 
thorough  harrowing,  in  the  spring,  to  fit  them  for  the 
fallow  crop.  Clover  leys  may  be  ploughed  just  before 
the  seed  is  to  be  deposited,  and  the  preparation  finished 
by  the  harrow  or  roller. 

There  is  no  agricultural  writer  of  note,  and  very  few 
good  farmers,  who  now  advocate  summer  fallows,  except 
on  stiff"  clays,  or  wet  grounds,  which  cannot  be  readily 
worked  in  spring  or  fall,  and  this  principally  for  the  pur- 
pose of  cleaning  them  from  perennial  weeds.  We  sub- 
join some  quotations,  from  high  authorities,  in  corrobora- 
tion of  this  fact. 

"  Fallowing  was  necessary,"  says  Chaptal,  "  as  long  as 
grains  only,  all  of  which  exhaust  the  lands,  were  cultiva- 
15  XV. 


170  FALLOW   CROPS   AND 

ted  ;  during  the  intervals  of  tilling  the  fields,  a  variety  of 
herbs  grew  on  them,  which  offered  food  for  animals,  and 
the  roots  of  which,  buried  in  the  soil  by  the  plough,  fur- 
nished a  great  part  of  the  necessary  manure.  But  at  this 
day,  when  we  have  succeeded  in  establishing  the  cultiva- 
tion of  a  great  variety  of  roots  and  artificial  grasses,  the 
system  of  fallowing  can  be  no  longer  supported  by  the 
shadow  of  a  good  reason.  The  ease  with  which  fodder 
may  be  cultivated,  furnishes  the  means  of  supporting  an 
increased  number  of  animals  ;  these  in  their  turn  supply 
manure  and  labor  ;  and  the  farmer  is  no  longer  under  the 
necessity  of  allowing  his  lands  to  be  fallow.  The  sup- 
pression of  the  practice  of  fallowing  is  then  equally  ser- 
viceable to  the  cultivator,  who  increases  his  productions 
without  proportionally  increasing  his  expenses,  and  to 
society,  which  derives  from  the  same  extent  of  soil  a 
much  greater  quantity  of  food,  and  additional  resources 
for  supplying  the  workshops  of  the  manufacturer." — 
Chemistry  applied  to  ^Agriculture. 

"It  is  already  acknowledged,  that  it  is  only  upon  wet 
soils,  or,  in  other  words,  upon  lands  unfit  for  the  turnip 
husbandry,  that  a  plain  summer  fallow  is  necessary." — 
^ew  Edinburgh  Encyclopedia. 

"  As  there  is  only  one  good  reason  for  fallowing," 
says  Cooper,  in  the  Domestic  Encyclopedia,  '^  namely, 
to  destroy  weeds, — and  as  this  can  be  done  full  as  well  by 
fallow  crops,  that  is,  by  crops  that  require  frequent  clean- 
ing during  their  growth,  no  fallows  ought  to  be  permitted 
in  a  good  system  of  husbandry." 

Before  root  culture,  or  the  alternation  of  crops,  had 
obtained  any  thing  like  a  footing  among  us.  Chancellor 
Livingston — and  we  can  ask  no  better  authority — satisfied 
of  the  great  loss  of  labor  and  farm-profits  by  the  old  sys- 
tem of  farming,  drew  the  following  comparison  between 
the  advantages  of  summer  fallows  and  fallow  crops,  pre- 
dicated, we  believe,  principally  upon  his  own  practice. 

"  I  will  endeavor,"  says  Chancellor  Livingston,  "  to 
state  the  profits  and  loss  of  two  farmers,  each  cultivating, 
besides  his  meadows,  one  hundred  acres  of  arable  land, 
one  in  the  usual  [old]  mode  of  this  country,  and  the  other 
by  the  intervention  of  vetches  and  clover. 


NAKED   FALLOWS.  171 

"  Common  Agriculture^  100  Acres. 

20  acres  in  corn,  35  bushels,  50  cts.  £7  0  0 

20        "        oats  on  corn  ground  of  the  pre- 
ceding year,  20  bushels,  at  2s.       .  .200 
20  acres  summer  fallow,        .          .          .  0  0  0 
20     "     wheat,  10  bushels,  at  8s.      .          .400 
20     "     wheat  stubble  in  pasture,           .         0  2  0 

100  acres.     Five  years' yield,  per  acre,        £13  2  0 
"  Expense  per  acre  for  five  years. 
Indian  corn,  ploughing,  &c.       £2  00  0 


Oats,  twice  ploughed,  . 

1 

00  0 

Harrowing,   seed-sowing,   and 

harvesting. 

0 

14  0 

Summer  fallow. 

1 

10  0 

Wheat,  seed  and  harvesting. 

1 

00  0 

Rent  on  5  acres,  at  50  cts.  a  year. 

1 

00  0 

£7 

4  0 

Balance  of  profit  on  1  acre  in  5  years,  or 

5  acres  in  1  year,  .  .  .       £5   18  0 

"  Profit  on  Fallow  Crops  on  Intervention  of  Fallow  Crops 
instead  of  Fallowing. 

20  acres  in  Indian  corn,         .  .  .£700 

20  acres  in  vetches,  25  cwt.  at  2s.  6d.  3     2  6 

20     "      in  wheat,  12  bushels,        .  .      4   16  0 
20    *'      in  clover,  25  cwt.,  31  cents,  3     2  6 

20    "      the  same,        .  .  .  .326 

Five  years'  produce  of  one  acre,     .  £21     3  6 
''  Expenses. 

Indian  corn,       .          .          .        £2     0  0 

Ploughing  corn  ground  for  vetch- 
es,      0   10  0 

Seed,  3  bushels,  sowing,  &c.         0   12  0 

Cutting  and  making  hay,         .        0     8  0 

Vetch    stubble    ploughed    once 

for  wheat,  seed  and  harvesting,    1    10  0 

12  lbs.  clover-seed  and  sowing,     0  15  0 


172  FALLOW   CROPS  AND 

Mowing  clover,  paid  by  the  sec- 
ond crop,         .  .  .  0    0  0 
Rent,  $4  50,  or  50  cents  a  year,     10  0 


£6  15  0 


To  balance  of  profit,  per  acre,  in  5  years, 

or  on  5  acres  in  1  year,        .  .  £14     8  6 

"  Thus  while  one  farmer  makes  ^£1  3s.  5d.  a  year  per 
acre,  upon  his  hundred  acres,  clear  of  expense,  the  other 
makes  £2  17s.  6d. ;  the  one  gets  little  better  than  one 
hundred,  the  other  gets  three  hundred  a  year.  In  the 
above  statement  I  have  given  one  farmer  credit  for  two 
bushels  of  wheat  more  than  the  other,  since  I  am  per- 
suaded the  vetch  crop  will  improve  the  ground  more  than 
the  difference,  as  the  dung  given  to  the  corn  will  not  be 
exhausted  by  this  so  much  as  by  the  oat  crop,  before  the 
wheat  is  sown.  To  this  profit  should  also  be  added  the 
continued  improvement  of  the  crop  by  the  one  mode  of 
husbandry,  and  the  continued  decrease  by  the  exhausting 
the  land  in  the  other. 

"  The  fallow  farmer  has  no  fodder  which  the  rotative 
farmer  does  not  possess,  except  the  straw  of  his  oats, 
which  we  will  value  at  half  a  ton  of  hay  per  acre.  He 
then  has  from  his  oats,  on  20  acres,  ten  tons. 

The  fallow  farmer  has,  from  20  acres  vetches,  25  tons. 
From  40  acres  of  clover,  .  .  .       50  " 

75 
Deduct  the  oat  straw,  ...       25 

Superiority  of  fallow-crop  farmer,         .  50  tons. 

"  He  can  thus  winter,  at  one  ton  a  head,  65  head  of 
cattle  more  than  the  fallowing  farmer  ;  and  as  each  of 
these  will  afford  at  least  six  loads  of  dung,  he  will  be 
able  to  carry  out  390  loads  of  dung  more  than  the  fallow- 
ing farmer,  besides  that  he  has  one  exhausting  crop  less. 
It  will  be  easy  to  see  what  difference  this  must  make  in 
a  few  years  in  the  produce  of  a  farm,  and  how  much  more 
it  would  be  than  I  have  rated  it  at.  We  often  ask  with 
astonishment,  how  the  British  farmer  can  afford  to  pay  a 


NAKED   FALLOWS.  173 

guinea  an  acre  rent,  [a  tenth  of  his  produce  in  tithes,  a 
heavy  poor-rate,  and  an  enormous  tax.]  The  difficuhy  is 
solved  if  we  examine  the  above  statement,  since  the  dif- 
ference between  fallowing  and  establishing  a  rotation  of 
crops  amounts  to  more  than  the  difference  of  our  rents  and 
theirs.  I  know  there  are  some  stiff  soils  on  which  it 
would  be  difficult  to  establish  the  rotation  I  mention,  but 
this  should  be  no  argument  against  it  where  the  soil  will 
admit  of  it,  particularly  as  clover  and  vetches  may  be  in- 
troduced with  a  certainty  of  success,  even  if  the  ground 
should  be  naturally  poor,  by  the  addition  only  of  gypsum, 
which  will  indeed  add  a  few  cents  a  year  to  the  acreable 
expense,  but  it  will,  in  all  probabihty,  at  the  same  time 
add  nearly  a  ton  to  the  produce. 

"  I  would  not  be  considered  as  confining  my  observa- 
tion to  vetches,  which  have  not  yet  been  sufficiently  tried 
in  this  country  ;  potatoes  or  carrots,  or  peas  sown  thin, 
and  cut  green  for  provender,  may  all  answer  the  purpose, 
but,  above  all,  clover.  If  this  last  is  the  only  crop  to  be 
brought  into  the  rotation,  the  system  must  be  changed  to 
the  following  course  :  1st,  corn  ;  2d,  barley  and  clover  ; 
3d  and  4th,  clover  ;  5th,  wheat  and  one  ploughing.  By 
this  means  a  crop  of  clover  will  be  substituted  for  a 
fallow." 

Thus  far  Chancellor  Livingston.  We  w^ould  add  this 
suggestion,  that  as  the  culture  of  turnips  and  beets  is  now 
successfully  progressing  among  us,  and  as  the  winter- 
wheat  crop  is  becoming  so  precarious  as  to  render  a  re- 
sort to  the  spring  varieties  of  that  grain  probable,  the 
following  course  would  be  better  adapted  to  our  husband- 
ry than  the  one  recommended  above  :  first  year,  corn  or 
potatoes,  upon  a  clover  ley,  with  long  or  unfermented 
manure  ;  second  year,  spring  wheat  with  clover-seeds  ; 
third  year,  clover  cut  in  June,  and  fallowed  with  turnips  ; 
fourth  year,  barley  or  oats  with  grass-seeds  ;  fifth  year, 
meadow ;  sixth  year,  pasture.  In  this  way  seven  crops 
would  be  obtained  in  six  years  ;  three  of  them  would  be 
decidedly  ameliorating,  and  but  two  particularly  exhaust- 
ing ;  and  in  five  of  the  seven  years  the  field  would  afford 
pasture  in  autumn.  This  course  is  particularly  recom- 
15* 


174  FALLOW   CROPS   AND 

mended  where  manure  is  scarce  ;  as  it  is  believed  that  ma- 
nuring the  first  crop  of  the  course  well  would  keep  up  the 
fertility  upon  lands  not  very  light  and  sandy,  as  it  would 
embrace  two  grass  leys.  Where  beets  or  carrots  are  to  be 
cultivated,  they  may  be  made  to  follow  the  dunged  crop  of 
corn  or  potatoes,  and  be  followed  in  their  turn  by  barley, 
or  oats,  or  wheat,  and  grass-seeds,  thus  giving  a  five-years' 
course,  in  which  the  field  would  give  two  grass,  two  ex- 
hausting, and  one  root  crop.  Two  objections  may  be 
started  to  the  first  course  ;  first,  that  the  clover  cannot  be 
cut  in  time  to  get  in  the  turnip  crop  ;  and  second,  that  sow- 
ing grass-seeds  twice  in  the  course  will  be  too  expensive. 
To  the  first  objection  we  offer  our  common  practice, 
which  is,  to  sow  our  ruta  baga  upon  a  clover  ley — the 
southern  or  small  clover — after  the  grass  has  been  cut  for 
hay,  in  June,  so  that  the  ruta  baga  may  be  sown  before  the 
first  of  July.  The  common  turnip  may  be  put  in  a 
month  later.  To  the  second  objection  we  answer,  that 
the  value  of  the  clover  ley  to  the  soil,  to  say  nothing 
of  the  feed  which  it  will  afford  to  cattle,  will  twice 
repay  the  cost  of  the  seed.  We  are  satisfied,  from  ex- 
perience, that  it  is  profitable  to  sow  clover  with  every 
crop  of  small  grain,  on  soils  adapted  to  its  growth, 
merely  for  the  purpose  of  enriching  the  land. 

Before  we  close  this  subject,  we  will  quote,  from 
'  British  Husbandry,'  two  highly-successful  experiments, 
made  upon  clay  farms,  in  substituting  fallow  crops  for 
naked  fallows.  Although  our  crops  differ  somewhat  from 
those  cultivated  in  England,  yet  the  hints  and  demonstra- 
tions which  these  examples  afford,  will  not  be  lost  on 
the  American  farmer.  The  two  following  are  the  cases 
alluded  to,  which  we  give  in  the  words  of  the  British 
editor. 

"  greg's  system. 

"  The  farm  of  Coles,  near  Buntingford,  in  Hertford- 
shire, consists  of  240  acres  of  arable  land,  which  is  de- 
scribed as  '  a  very  tenacious  clay,  in  some  places  mixed 
up  with  calcareous  earth,  which  causes  it  to  bind  at  top 
after  heavy  rains  ;'  and  was  formerly  worked  nearly  un- 


NAKED   FALLOWS.  175 

der  a  three-course  system  of  summer  fallow,  white  corn, 
and  pulse,  or  clover.  Turnips  were  seldom  sown,  as  the 
difficulty  of  feeding  or  carting  them  off  was  found  to  be 
injurious  to  the  succeeding  crop  ;  and,  consequently, 
only  a  small  flock  of  80  ewes  or  140  wethers  was  kept, 
which  was  constantly  folded  during  the  summer.  Upon 
this,  and  the  observations  regarding  the  disadvantages 
attending  the  similar  plans  of  his  neighbors,  it  is  unneces- 
sary that  we  should  here  offer  any  remark,  for  we  know 
that  they  have  been,  in  many  instances,  improved,  and 
our  more  immediate  object  is  to  state  the  system  after- 
wards adopted  by  Mr.  Greg,  and  since  followed  by  his 
nephew,  during  upwards  of  twenty  years. 

"  Having,  as  he  tells  us,  '  established  in  his  mind,  as  a 
general  principle,  that  fertility  was  to  be  derived  from 
pulverizing  the  soil,  clearing  it  from  water,  and  keeping 
it  clean,  he  proceeded  to  inquire  how  those  objects  were 
to  be  obtained  at  the  least  expense  ;  and  he  found  that  the 
best  method  to  promote  them  was  to  reverse  the  whole 
system  of  the  former  cultivation.'  Accordingly,  instead 
of  ploughing  four  or  five  times  only,  in  summer  and 
spring,  and  fallowing  every  third  year,  he  formed  the  de- 
termination '  to  plough  only  once  for  a  crop  ;  to  plough 
only  in  winter  ;  never  to  fallow  the  land  in  summer  ;  to 
practise  the  row-culture,  and  to  use  the  horse-hoe.'  The 
mode  in  which  he  carried  his  plan  into  execution  was  as 
follows. 

"He  divided  the  farm  as  nearly  as  possible  into  six 
equal  parts,  which  are  cultivated  in  a  six-course  shift, 
consisting  of  turnips  ;  barley  or  oats,  clover,  standing 
two  years  ;  peas  or  beans,  upon  the  ley ;  and  lastly, 
wheat.  The  ground  is  marked  out  by  a  drill  into  ridges 
of  five  and  a  half  feet  in  width,  intersected  by  furrows  of 
ten  inches  wide  ;  thus  leaving  only  fifty-six  inches  for 
each  land,  which  is  worked  by  a  Suffolk  swing  plough, 
formed  upon  a  construction  to  cut  a  perfect  trench  of 
seven  inches  deep,  and  requiring  four  bouts  to  complete 
the  ridge,  which  is  made  sufficiently  convex  to  describe 
an  inclined  plane  of  three  inches  from  the  crown  to  each 
iurrow.      Thus  water  is  prevented   from  remaining  upon 


176  FALLOW  CROPS  AND 

the  land  intended  to  be  cropped,  by  being  drawn  into  the 
ten-inch  furrow,  which  is  carried  two  inches  deeper  ;  the 
horses  never  tread  but  in  a  furrow  ;  and  by  the  soundness 
of  this  ploughing  Mr.  Greg  states,  that  '  when  effected 
in  the  autumn  or  before  Christmas,  a  perfect  friability  is 
obtained  in  the  tilth  by  the  influence  of  the  frost  during 
the  winter,  and  the  surface-water  may  be  as  effectually 
got  rid  of  as  by  under-draining.' 

"  As  soon  as  the  harvest  is  completed,  the  wheat-stub- 
bles are  haulmed,  and  the  lands  are  marked  out  and 
ploughed  one  bout  :  dung  is  then  ploughed  in  to  the 
amount  of  ten  loads  per  acre,  and  three  bushels  of  winter 
tares  with  a  bushel  and  a  half  of  winter  barley  are  sown, 
to  precede  turnips,  to  the  extent  of  about  half  the  ground 
intended  for  that  crop,  which,  in  common  seasons,  it  does 
not  impede,  as  the  tares  are  cut  upon  a  moist  furrow  for 
the  turnip-sowing. 

"  The  tare-sowing  being  finished,  the  bean  and  pea- 
stubbles  are  prepared  for  wheat  ;  which  is  a  difficult  op- 
eration on  heavy  land,  when  the  object  is  to  get  the  seed 
early  into  the  ground.  The  labor  which  they  require 
from  the  plough,  roll,  and  harrow,  was  so  great  as  to  inr 
duce  Mr.  Greg  to  use  a  powerful  grubber,  or  scarifier, 
of  a  form  which  covers  an  entire  land  ;  and  it  performed 
so  well  that  he  has  since  continued  to  use  it  instead  of 
the  plough,  as  he  found  that  he  could  thus  sow  forty 
acres  of  wheat  in  a  very  few  days,  regardless  of  weather, 
and  at  a  sixth  part  of  the  expense. 

"  Having  sown  the  wheat,  the  remainder  of  the  land 
intended  for  turnips  is  ploughed  and  dunged.  The 
ploughing  is  also  performed  for  peas  and  beans  ;  and  it  is 
desirable  that  these  operations  should  be  completed  be- 
fore Christmas.  As  soon  as  the  season  turns,  the  land 
which  was  ley,  and  intended  for  beans  and  peas,  is  scari- 
fied ;  and  when  the  growing  weather  commences,  the 
beans  are  drilled  at  fifteen  inches,  for  the  convenience  of 
horse-hoeing.  The  peas  are  next  drilled  ;  but  as  these,  by 
falling  over,  preclude  the  possibility  of  hoeing  them  more 
than  twice,  they  are   sown  at  intervals  of  twelve  inches. 

'*  As  the  ground  is  cleared  of  turnips,  it  is  ploughed 


NAKED   FALLOWS.  177 

into  lands.  In  the  spring,  the  barley  is  drilled  in  rows  of 
eight  inches — not  leaving  any  space  for  furrow — and  the 
clover  and  rye-grass  is  sown  up,  and  then  across  the  lands. 

"As  soon  in  May  as  the  weather  permits,  and  the  sun 
is  sufficiently  powerful  to  kill  weeds,  the  scarifier  is  set 
to  work,  succeeded  by  a  strong  harrow  ;  and  having  by 
these  operations  obtained  cleanliness,  the  first  favorable 
weather  is  made  use  of  to  sow  Swedish  turnips  ;  or, 
should  they  fail,  they  are  succeeded  by  white  turnips,  and 
in  the  event  of  a  further  miscarriage,  coleseed  is  sown. 
With  these,  and  the  assistance  of  about  ten  loads  of  clo- 
ver, and  ten  weeks'  run  on  pasture  in  bad  weather,  500 
sheep  are  now  kept  on  the  farm,  but  lie  enclosed  at  night 
in  a  spacious  and  well-littered  yard.  The  fodder  pro- 
duced by  straw  and  clover-hay  supports  from  forty  to  fifty 
head  of  cattle,  and  nine  working  horses  are  kept,  which 
are  soiled  during  the  entire  summer  :  thus  so  large  a 
quantity  of  dung  is  made  that  no  manure  is  purchased. 

"  In  this  manner  200  acres  are  ploughed  between  har- 
vest and  Christmas,  besides  the  cartage  of  dung  and  other 
odd  jobs  on  the  farm  ;  but  this  is  easily  performed  with 
the  aid  of  the  grubber,  and  the  land  being  entirely 
ploughed  in  the  winter,  there  is  only  the  sowing  of  Lent 
corn  to  execute  in  the  spring  :  the  horses  are  therefore 
put  upon  green  food,  by  which  a  considerable  saving  is 
made  in  the  consumption  of  corn.  Many  other  details 
of  management  are  given  in  Mr.  Greg's  pamphlet,  which 
is  brief  and  well  worthy  of  attention,  but  which  w^e  refrain 
from  enumerating,  as  we  only  meant  to  call  attention  to  the 
extraordinary  statement  which  it  contains,  of  such  a  system 
of  culture  having  been  so  successfully  pursued  upon  land 
of  that  nature,  as  to  yield  an  average,  during  six  years, 
of  the  following  crops,  namely  : 

Per  acre. 
Wheat,        .....  25  bushels. 

Barley, 40       " 

Beans, 35        " 

Peas, 30       '' 

Clover,  twice  cut,         ...  2  tons. 

Thus,  after  the  deduction  of  rent  and  the  interest  of 


178  FALLOW  CROPS  AND 

£2,500  capital,  presenting,  upon  an  average  of  six  years, 
a  profit  of  £671  35.,  or  £2  lbs.  lid.  per  acre,  and  a 
result  in  favor  of  his  mode  of  cultivation  of  no  less  than 
an  annual  difference  amounting  to  £638  13s. 

"  Of  the  accuracy  of  the  minute  account  thus  furnished 
by  Mr.  Greg,  we  have  no  reason  to  doubt,  though  we 
confess  ourselves  somewhat  skeptical  regarding  the  jus- 
tice of  the  conclusions  which  he  has  drawn  respecting 
the  superiority  of  his  own  plans  over  those  of  his  neigh- 
bors ;  for  every  man,  however  high  his  honor  and  impar- 
tiality, is  yet  unconsciously  biased  in  favor  of  any  pur- 
suit of  his  own,  and  no  farmer  could  hve  upon  the  profit 
which  he  has  assumed  as  that  of  cultivation  under  the  old 
plan.  On  a  subject  of  such  vital  importance  to  agricul- 
ture as  that  of  the  fallow  system,  we  indeed  deemed  it 
prudent  to  apply  to  the  present  Mr.  Greg  for  further  in- 
formation, which  he  readily  afforded  ;  and,  from  recent 
personal  communication  and  correspondence,  we  are  as- 
sured by  him,  '  that  his  uncle's  system  is  still  pursued 
upon  his  farm  with  the  best  effect  ;  as  is  evinced  by  the 
clean  condition  of  the  land,  the  heavy  crops  produced, 
and  the  quantities  of  stock  maintained.  The  only  altera- 
tion of  importance  made  in  his  mode  of  cultivation  sub- 
sequent to  the  publication  of  his  pamphlet,  was  the  sub- 
stitution of  a  seven-years'  course,  in  place  of  that  of  six 
years,  by  which  he  obtained  two  crops  of  wheat — one  on 
the  clover  ley,  and  another  after  the  beans  and  peas. 
The  annual  course  of  cropping  in  the  several  years  now, 
therefore,  stands  thus  : — 

1.   Turnips.  5.   Wheat. 

*    2.   Barley.  6.   Beans  and  Peas. 

3.  and  4.  Clover.  7.   Wheat. 

"  '  No  material  alteration  has  been  made  in  the  imple- 
ments ;  nor  was  any  fallow  permitted  so  long  as  the 
late  Mr.  Greg's  health  allowed  his  superintendence  of  the 
farm  ;  but  the  bailiff  now  occasionally  fallows  a  field  of 
the  heaviest  land  :  this,  however,  is  only  resorted  to 
when  the  land  sown  with  turnips  has  not  been  prepared 
in  time  for  the  barley  crop,  and  only  averages  about  16 
acres  a  year  out  of  250.'  " 


NAKED   FALLOWS.  179 


"beatson's   system. 

"  Knowle  Farm,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Tunbridge 
Wells,  which  was  a  few  years  ago  in  the  occupation  of 
the  late  General  Beatson,  contains  about  300  acres  of 
land,  of  which  112  are  arable,  and  is  described  as  abound- 
ing with  clay,  and  retentive  of  surface  moisture,  but 
when  dried  by  the  summer  heat,  it  becomes  as  hard  as  a 
brick,  and  impervious  to  the  plough,  unless  with  a  great 
power  of  animal  exertion,  particularly  as  the  general 
mode  is  to  plough  deep.  The  established  rotation  in  that 
part  of  Kent  and  the  neighboring  portion  of  Sussex, 
is  fallow,  wheat,  and  oats,  with  occasionally  clover 
and  rye-grass  ;  and  the  husbandry  appears  to  have  re- 
mained unaltered  for  many  ages,  with  the  single  exception 
of  substituting  lime  for  manure  instead  of  marl.  Upon 
this  system  the  farm  was  managed  during  the  General's 
absence,  while  Governor  of  the  Island  of  St.  Helena  ; 
and  finding  on  his  return,  in  the  year  1813,  '  that  he  had 
no  cause  to  boast  of  its  profit,  he  resolved  to  trace  the 
whole  progress  of  the  operations,  from  the  commence- 
ment of  the  fallow  to  the  close  of  the  rotation  ;'  the  re- 
sult of  which  was,  that,  '  having  made  a  series  of  experi- 
ments, to  which  he  devoted  his  attention  during  five  years, 
he  determined  upon  the  total  abolition  of  fallows.''* 

*  His  experiments  were  extended  to  various  objects  besides  the 
working  of  the  land  ;  particularly  to  the  combinations  of  different  kinds 
of  manure,  and  the  burning  of  clay,  (for  which,  see  our  vol.  i.  chap- 
ters 16  and  17  ;)  but  our  present  extracts  only  extend  to  the  subject 
of  fallowing,  the  charges  of  which  he  states  to  have  amounted  to  X16 
per  acre,  thus  : — 

Labor,  breaking  up  the  clover  ley  and  3  subsequent 

ploughings, £3  12  6 

Eleven  harrowings,  at  ten  acres  per  day, 0     9  0 

Manure,  one  and  a  half  wagon-load  of  lime,  between  the 

third  and  fourth  ploughings, 7  10  0 

Carting  and  spreading  ditto, 0     6  0 

Seed,  two  and  a  half  bushels  of  wheat,  at  10s 1     5  0 

Sowing  and  rolling, 0     1  6 

Rent  and  taxes  for  the  year  of  fallow, 1    10  0 

Ditto  for  the  year  of  crop, 110  0 

j£16    4  0 


180  FALLOW  CROPS  AND 

"  In  order  to  effect  this,  he  adopted  several  new  im- 
plements, chiefly  of  his  own  invention,  for  a  description 
of  which  we  must  refer  to  his  '  New  System  of  Cultiva- 
tion,' as  we  have  only  seen  the  scarifier  in  use.  This  is 
of  a  light  construction,  and  certainly  performs  well  ; 
though,  upon  land  such  as  that  described  by  the  General, 
it  is  worked  by  a  pair  of  horses,  and  sometimes  more, 
instead  of  one. 

"  He  conceived  that  the  grand  source  of  all  the  heavy 
expenses  of  the  old  method  might  be  traced  to  the  fallow 
itself,  and  to  the  mode  of  preparing  it — '  by  bringing  up 
immense  slags  with  the  plough,  by  reversing  the  soil,  and 
thus  burying  the  seeds  of  weeds  that  had  fallen  on  the 
surface,  by  which  a  foundation  is  laid  for  all  the  subse- 
quent laborious  and  expensive  operations.'  To  avoid 
these,  he  therefore  thought  it  necessary  to  proceed  in  a 
different  manner — 'to  only  break  and  crumble  the  sur- 
face-soil, to  any  depth  that  may  be  required  ;  to  burn 
and  destroy  the  weeds  ;  after  which  he  would  have  the 
land  in  a  fine  and  clean  state  of  pulverization,  and  in 
readiness  for  receiving  the  seed,  without  losing  a  year's 
rent  and  taxes  ;  and  all  this  at  a  mere  trifle  of  expense, 
when  compared  with  that  which  is  incurred  by  a  fallow.' 

"  In  pursuance  of  this,  he  reduced  the  ploughing  to  a 
single  operation  at  the  depth  of  four  inches.  The  chief 
use,  indeed,  which  he  made  of  the  plough  was  to  open 
furrows  at  twenty-seven  inches  apart,  which  was  per- 
formed by  a  couple  of  horses  at  the  rate  of  three  acres 
per  day,  and  was  merely  intended  to  prepare  the  land  for 
the  scarifiers,  '  which,  by  passing  twice  across  these 
furrows,  loosen  all  the  stubble  and  roots  of  weeds,  which 
are  afterwards,  with  a  small  portion  of  the  soil,  placed  in 
heaps  and  burned.'  By  these  means,  together  with  the 
more  frequent  repetition  of  the  horse-hoeing,  and  the  in- 
troduction of  the  row-culture,  the  General  assures  us 
'  that  his  lands  were  rendered  much  cleaner,  and  yielded 
better  crops  than  they  did  formerly,  after  all  the  heavy 
expenses  of  lime  and  fallows.'  He  indeed  states,  that 
these  operations  produced  the  effect  of  pulverization  to 
the  depth  of  six  or  seven  inches,  and  their  expense  was — 


NAKED   FALLOWS.  181 

Five  scarifyings,  with  a  single-horse 

implement,  at  Is.  8f/.  per  acre,     £0  8  4 
Two  harrowings,  at  lOJ      .      .     .        19 


£0  10  1 


that  the  whole  charge  of  cultivation,  under  a  four-course 
system  upon  this  plan,  including  rent,  was — 

Tares,  beans,  peas,  &c.  per  acre,  £5     0  0 

Wheat, "      .500 

Oats  and  barley,       .      .      "      .     3  13  6 
Clover  and  rye-grass,    .     "      .     2  15  0 

£16  8  6 

thus  only  amounting  to  a  trifle  more  than  that  of  the  fal- 
low upon  the  former  plan  ;  that  land  cultivated  upon  his 
farm  in  this  manner  has  yielded  460  sheaves  of  wheat  per 
acre,  whilst  the  average  produce  of  the  other  fields  did 
not  exceed  360  ;  and  that  the  difference  in  favor  of  the 
new  method  amounts,  upon  an  average — when  wheat  is 
at  105.  the  bushel — to  £350  per  annum  upon  the  cultiva- 
tion of  100  acres." — British  Husbandry. 

We  have  endeavored,  as  we  proposed,  to  demonstrate 
the  practicability  of  improving  the  soil,  of  increasing  its 
products  and  its  profits  ;  of  thereby  multiplying  the  means 
of  subsistence  and  comfort ;  of  rendering  our  farmers, 
who  must  give  the  impress  to  our  character  as  a  people, 
more  intelligent,  industrious,  and  virtuous,  and  our  nation 
truly  independent  ;  we  have  endeavored,  we  say,  to  show, 
that  all  these  desirable  ends  may  be  promoted  by  manu- 
ring, draining,  and  good  tillage  ;  by  alternating  husbandry, 
by  extending  the  culture  of  root  crops,  and  by  substituting 
fallow  crops  for  naked  fallows.  We  have  endeavored 
also  to  show,  that  our  suggestions,  in  all  these  branches 
of  improvement,  are  sanctioned  by  the  principles  of  sci- 
ence, and  have  been  amply  verified  in  practice.  If  the 
principles  we  have  assumed  be  correct,  and  the  practice 
we  recommend  in  conformity  with  the  sound  principles  of 
natural  philosophy,  then  the  old-fashioned  farmer  is  ad- 
monished thereby  to  change  his  course  of  practice,  if 
he  would  prosper  in  his  business, — to  study,  to  practise, 
and  to  adopt  the  new  system  of  husbandry,  so  far  as  his 
16  XV. 


182  ADAPTATION   OF 

soil  and  circumstances  will  permit ; — to  drain  his  wet  lands, 
economize  his  manures,  and  to  apply  them  before  they 
are  half  wasted, — to  till  well  what  he  does  till, — to  alter- 
nate his  crops, — to  extend  his  root  and  clover  culture, — 
to  increase  his  stock  as  the  products  of  his  farm  will  per- 
mit,— and  to  substitute  fallow  crops  for  summer  fallows. 
And  the  settler  on  new  lands  is  admonished  to  adopt  a 
like  course,  if  he  would  preserve  the  fertility  of  his  soil, 
and  render  his  lands  permanently  productive. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 

ON    THE    ADAPTATION    OF    PARTICULAR     CROPS     TO     CERTAIN 
SOILS. 

It  is  well  known  that  certain  plants  are  found  to  abound 
most  naturally  in  particular  soils,  and  that  some  plants  are 
almost  exclusively  confined  to  such — as  primitive,  transi- 
tion, and  secondary  ;  silicious,  calcareous,  or  argillaceous; 
dry  or  wet ;  rich  or  poor  ; — and  botanists  pretend  to  deter- 
mine, from  the  examination  of  a  plant,  its  peculiar  habita- 
tion. It  is  reasonable  to  conclude,  from  analogy,  that 
cultivated  plants  have  their  preferences,  as  to  soil,  as  well 
as  those  which  grow  naturally.  Indeed,  we  have  abun- 
dant proofs  of  this  fact,  in  our  ordinary  farming  opera- 
tions. This  subject  has  long  engaged  the  attention  of  Dr. 
Von  Thaer,  the  distinguished  Principal  of  the  Prussian 
school  of  Moegelin,  The  following  table  exhibits  a  clas- 
sification of  soils,  particularly  adapted  to  the  crops  designa- 
ted, with  their  elementary  parts,  and  relative  value,  both 
in  regard  to  the  soils  and  the  crops  which  they  produce. 
Although  the  real  value  of  every  rotation  depends,  in  a 
great  measure,  upon  the  manner  in  which  its  several  pro- 
cesses are  executed,  and  upon  the  demands  of  the  mar- 
ket ;  yet,  abstractly  speaking,  some  courses  must  be  con- 
sidered as  better  than  others,  because  the  crops  may  be 
more  suitable  to  the  pecuHar  qualities  of  the  land  on  which 
they  are  to  be  grown. 


CROPS   TO    SOILS. 


183 


:s  c3 

SOILS. 

■4-i 

^^§ 

.     in 

=1 

V 

i 

as    ^ 

^  S3 

02    S 

1- 

1 

^ 

74 

10 

o 

ffi    &, 

> 

1 

1                                                          f 

4i 

II2 

100 

2 

!  First  class  of  strong  wheat 

81 

6 

4 

8i 

98 

3 

1       soils, 1 

79 

20 

4 

62 

96 

4 

J                          [ 

40 

22 

36 

4 

90 

5 

Rich  barley  land,    .     .     . 

20 

67 

3 

10 

78 

6 

7 

i  Good  wheat  land,       .     . 

58 
56 

36 
30 

2 
12 

4 

2 

77 
75 

8 

}         ■                                           ^ 

60 

38 

2 

70 

9 

>  Ordinary  wheat  land,      .       < 

48 

50 

0) 

2 

65i 

10 

)                                                     ( 

68 

30 

;-5 

2 

60 

11 

Good  barley  land, 

38 

60 

11 

2 

60 

12 
13 

\                                                    ^ 

33 

65 

^« 

2 

50 

>  Ordinary  barley  land, 

28 

70 

=5    =3 

"3  "^ 

2 

40 

14 

>  Oat  and  rye  land,      .      . 

23J 
181 

75 

32 

11 

30 

1 1 

15 

80 

I2 

20 

It  will  be  perceived  that  the  wheat  soils  possess  from 
40  to  81  per  cent,  of  clay,  from  4  to  36  of  carbonate  of 
lime,  and  from  4  to  11 J  of  humus,  or  geine.  Lime  seems 
to  be  an  indispensable  ingredient  in  a  wheat  soil.  Neither 
barley,  oats,  nor  rye,  and  we  may  extend  the  remark  to 
Indian  corn  and  turnips,  and  indeed  to  many  other  farm 
products,  requires  carbonate  of  lime,  though  this  always 
gives  a  chemical  and  mechanical  improvement  to  the 
soil,  by  rendering  sands  more  compact,  and  more  reten- 
tive of  moisture  and  manure,  and  clays  more  light  and 
pervious  to  atmospheric  and  solar  influence,  and  to  the 
roots  of  the  crop.  All  the  soils  in  which  sand  pre- 
dominates over  clay,  are  best  adapted  to  the  growth  of 
Indian  corn,  turnips,  clover,  &c.,  though  the  product  will 
depend  on  the  soluble  organic  matter  in  the  soil,  and  the 
fidelity  of  the  culture. 

Nos.  1,  2,  and  3  are  alluvial  soils  of  the  richest  quality, 
and  embrace  much  of  the  land  upon  the  lower  flats  of  riv- 
ers coming  from  secondary  and  transition  formations,  and 
a  large  portion,  it  is  believed,  of  the  secondary  formation 


184  ADAPTATION   OF 

lying  west  of  the  Alleghany  range  of  mountains  ;  and  from 
the  abundance  of  vegetable  mould,  or  humus,  which  such 
soils  contain,  and  the  intimate  state  of  admixture  with 
earthy  materials  in  which  it  is  found,  they  are  not  so  stiff 
as  the  quantity  of  clay  which  they  contain  would  seem  to 
indicate.  But  their  texture  will  become  more  compact 
as  the  vegetable  matter  becomes  exhausted  by  bad  hus- 
bandry. From  the  absence  of  hme  in  most  of  the  prim- 
itive formation  east  of  the  Alleghanies,  many  districts, 
although  not  deficient  in  the  other  ingredients,  are  not 
found  congenial  to  the  growth  of  wheat. 

No.  4  is  a  fine  clay  loam,  such  as  abounds  in  many 
limestone  districts,  and  contains  a  very  large  proportion 
of  carbonate  of  hme.  The  application  of  lime  or  marl  to 
such  a  soil  would  be  a  waste  of  time  and  money.  Indeed, 
while  there  is  four  per  cent,  of  carbonate  of  lime  in  a 
soil,  it  is  doubted  whether  these  applications  can  be  made 
with  any  advantage. 

No.  5  may  be  termed  a  very  rich  sand  loam,  in  which 
there  is  one  fifth  clay,  one  tenth  humus,  or  organic  mat- 
ter, and  a  sufficiency  of  carbonate  of  lime  for  ordinary 
purposes.  This  soil  is  easily  worked,  is  adapted  to  al- 
ternate husbandry,  if  made  dry,  and,  although  graduated 
a  tenth  below  No.  1,  is  probably  as  profitable  a  soil  as 
the  farmer  can  cultivate. 

Nos.  6  and  7  may  be  denominated  kind  clay  soils, 
about  upon  a  par  with  No.  5,  clay  more  preponderating 
in  their  composition,  and  with  less  than  half  the  humus 
that  No.  5  contains — a  deficiency,  however,  which  a 
good  farmer  would  soon  contrive  to  remedy. 

Nos.  8,  9,  and  10  are  rated  of  less  value  than  the 
preceding,  because  they  are  deficient  in  carbonate  of  lime 
and  humus.  Upon  these,  it  is  presumed,  mild  hme,  and 
marl,  and  ashes  would  prove  beneficial,  and  would  raise 
them  to  the  value  of  Nos.  6  and  .7.  All  of  these  num- 
bers, and  those  which  follow,  may  be  considered  as  corn, 
turnip,  and  clover  soils,  if  the  deficiency  of  humus  is  sup- 
plied by  manuring. 

Nos.  10,  11,  and  12  form  the  lightest  classes  of 
soils,  and  are  termed  sandy,  from  the  preponderance  of 


CROPS   TO    SOILS.  185 

sand  over  clay.  These  lack  carbonate  of  lime,  and  humus 
and  clay  ;  and  clay-marl  or  blue  clay,  or  indeed  any  clay, 
properly  applied,  would  constitute  an  excellent  dressing 
for  them.  Green  crops,  of  any  sort,  turned  under  with 
the  plough,  are  here  particularly  serviceable.  When 
duly  enriched  they  will  bear  good  rye.  Clover,  or  other 
green  crops,  should  frequently  intervene  in  the  alterna- 
tion. If  dry,  sheep  may  be  advantageously  pastured 
upon  them. 

We  will  here  make  some  suggestions  as  to  the  mode 
of  applying  marl  or  clay  to  sandy  lands,  though  at  the  risk 
of  repeating  what  we  may  have  already  said  upon  this 
subject.  The  object  of  the  apphcation  is  to  improve  the 
absorbent  and  retentive  properties  of  the  soil,  as  it  regards 
moisture  and  manure.  It  is  hence  important  that  the 
clay  or  marl  should  be  pulverized  and  intimately  incor- 
porated with  the  soil.  Pulverization  can  only  be  effect- 
ed by  exposing  the  marl  or  clay  to  the  action  of  the  frosts, 
rains,  and  the  sun.  If  laid  upon  the  ground  in  masses, 
or  heaps,  pulverization  is  but  partially  effected,  and  that 
only  upon  the  surface  of  the  heaps.  It  is  advisable  there- 
fore, and  it  is  the  practice  we  have  settled  upon,  to  draw 
the  clay  or  marl  on  to  the  ground  in  autumn  or  winter, 
and  to  spread  from  the  carts,  as  far  as  its  adhesive  quali- 
ty will  permit,  over  the  entire  surface  of  the  field.  The 
lumps  become  saturated  with  rain,  the  frosts  penetrate, 
expand  their  volume,  and  loosen  their  adhesive  proper- 
ties, and  when  the  clay  or  marl  afterwards  becomes  dry, 
they  may  be  broken  down  by  a  maul,  and  pretty  well 
pulverized  and  distributed  by  the  roller  and  harrow.  The 
operations  of  tillage  will  then  produce  as  good  a  mix- 
ture as  can  be  expected.  Were  the  attempt  made  to 
blend  these  materials  with  the  soil,  without  the  prepara- 
tory process  of  pulverization,  much  of  the  benefit  of  the 
application  would  be  lost.  Besides,  the  clay  and  marl, 
by  exposure  to  atmospheric  influence,  part  with  deleteri- 
ous properties  which  they  often  possess  when  drawn  from 
the  pit,  and  are  ameliorated  and  enriched  by  the  atmo- 
sphere. Judging  from  experience,  we  consider  twenty 
or  thirty-two  horse  loads  of  blue  clay,  containing,  like  that 
16* 


186  THE    EFFECTS   OF 

about  Albany,  25  to  30  per  cent,  of  carbonate  of  lime, 
applied,  agreeably  to  the  foregoing  directions,  to  an  acre 
of  land  like  Nos.  14  and  15  of  the  above  table,  of 
more  ultimate  benefit  than  an  equal  number  of  loads  of 
barn-yard  manure. 

The  majority  of  soils  do  not  contain  more  than  five 
per  cent,  of  humus  ;  and,  as  we  have  observed,  many 
contain  little  or  no  carbonate  of  lime.  Without  the  first, 
no  admixture  of  earths  can  be  productive  ;  and  without  the 
latter,  wheat,  and  probably  some  other  farm-crops,  can- 
not be  grow^n  to  advantage.  Yet  where  there  is  a  due 
admixture  of  sand  and  clay,  two  per  cent,  of  carbonate 
of  lime,  and  an  equal  proportion  of  humus,  will  render 
the  soil  productive,  for  a  season,  or  until  the  lime  and  the 
dung  are  too  far  exhausted  by  the  growing  crops.  Sandy 
soils  are  much  more  easily  wrought  than  clay  soils  ;  and 
if  they  are  tolerably  well  dunged  and  managed,  or  if  green 
crops  are  made  frequently  to  alternate,  they  make  a  good 
return  to  the  husbandman.  Under  constant  tillage  they 
are  soon  exhausted ;  and  it  is  but  seldom  they  are  found 
to  yield  a  succession  of  grass  crops.  Alternate  husbandry 
should  therefore,  at  all  events,  be  resorted  to  upon  soils 
of  this  description. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

EFFECTS  OF   CROPPING  AND   MANURING. 

The  reader  will  find  a  further  illustration  of  the  bene- 
fits of  manuring,  of  alternating  crops,  and  of  abolishing 
naked  fallows,  in  the  facts  and  suggestions  which  we  are 
about  to  present  him. 

We  have  heretofore  endeavored  to  make  it  plain,  that 
living  and  dead  plants  contain  the  same  elementary  mat- 
ters,— that  dead  plants  afford  the  proper  aliment  for  liv- 
ing plants, — and  that,  consequently,  the  fertility  of  a  soil 
will  be  increased  or  diminished,  in  proportion  to  the  quan- 
tity of  dung  or  organic  matter  which  is  returned  to  it, 


CROPPING  AND  MANURING.  187 

compared  to  the  quantity  which  is  taken  from  it  by  crop- 
ping. New  or  virgin  soils  may  contain  a  large  supply 
of  vegetable  matter,  or  humus,  or  soluble  geine,  terms 
which  mean  much  the  same  thing,  or  they  may  contain 
an  abundance  of  the  specific  food  of  certain  plants,  as  of 
VN^heat,  for  instance,  enough  to  feed  several  successive 
crops  ;  yet  the  powers  of  fertility  are  diminished  by  ev- 
ery succeeding  one,  if  the  crops  are  carried  off  from  the 
field,  and  nothing  returned  to  it  to  supply  the  loss, — until 
finally,  if  the  system  of  cropping  goes  on  in  this  way, 
the  food  of  plants  will  become  exhausted,  and  the  land 
sterile  and  barren,  for  all  the  profitable  purposes  of  hus- 
bandry. If  we  look  to  the  old  continent,  we  shall  per- 
ceive that  large  districts,  once  fertile  and  populous,  have, 
by  the  injudicious  management  of  the  husbandman,  be- 
come almost  waste  and  depopulated.  A  great  portion 
of  Egypt,  of  India,  of  Asia  Minor,  of  the  Barbary 
States,  and  of  Spain,  which  once  sustained  their  millions 
of  inhabitants,  and  were  to  the  world  examples  in  the  arts 
of  culture  and  civilization,  may  be  cited  in  illustration  of 
this  fact.  And  if  we  will  turn  our  eye  upon  the  Atlantic 
border  of  this  new  continent — new  at  least  in  culti- 
vation and  improvement — we  shall  see  ample  evidence 
of  the  melancholy  tendency  of  the  old,  the  exhausting 
system  of  husbandry.  We  shall  see  millions  of  acres  of 
once  fertile  lands,  formerly  in  as  high  repute  as  the  El 
Dorado  of  the  west — the  land  of  promise — worn  out  and 
exhausted  of  their  fertility,  by  the  old  wretched  system  of 
cropping,  cropping,  cropping,  until  they  have  been  thrown 
into  "  old  fields ^'^^  or  commons,  as  unworthy  of  culture. 
And  even  in  the  fertile  west,  from  the  abuse  of  those 
who  are  charged  with  their  culture,  are  the  lands  in  some 
districts  assuming  the  garb  of  old  age  and  unproductive- 
ness, and  their  occupants  are  passing  further  west,  to  seek 
out  and  exhaust  the  patrimony  destined  for  coming  gen- 
erations. 

If  we  put  an  ox  to  a  stack  of  hay,  he  may  subsist  upon 
it  a  longer  or  shorter  time,  according  to  the  quantity  of 
food  which  it  contains.  A  constant  diminution  of  his  food 
is  going  on  ;  and  although  he  may  feed  and  fatten  till  the 


lob  THE    EFFECTS   OF 

last  lock  is  consumed,  it  is  very  certain,  that  unless  the 
stack,  or  the  food,  is  replenished,  the  ox,  when  the  stack 
is  consumed,  will  hanger  and  die,  for  want  of  nourish- 
ment. The  organic  matter  in  the  soil  is  the  stack  of 
hay,  and  the  crops  are  the  ox.  As  long  as  the  organic 
matter  continues  in  sufficient  quantity,  the  crops  will 
thrive  ;  but  the  moment  the  organic  matter  is  exhausted, 
or  is  deficient  in  quantity,  the  crops,  like  the  ox,  will 
pine  and  die,  for  want  of  food.  The  herdsman  takes 
care  to  provide  fresh  food  for  the  ox  before  the  stock  of 
hay  is  exhausted  ;  and  the  prudent  farmer  will  take  like 
precaution  to  provide  for  the  coming  wants  of  his  crops. 
Providence  has  imparted  fertihty  to  the  soil  for  the  benefit 
of  man,  to  whose  management  He  has  intrusted  it ;  and 
He  has  endowed  him  with  the  faculty,  and  provided  abun- 
dant means,  of  perpetuating  that  fertility.  How  reckless 
and  improvident  do  we  consider  the  young  spendthrift, 
who  wantonly  squanders  his  paternal  inheritance.  He 
not  only  injures  himself,  and  perverts  a  noble  object  of 
his  being — that  of  doing  good  to  his  fellows — but  he  does 
injury  to  others  by  his  bad  example,  and  robs  his  chil- 
dren of  their  inheritance.  The  contemner  of  Nature's 
laws,  who  wantonly  wastes  the  bounties  of  Providence, 
by  a  reckless,  exhausting  system  of  husbandry,  does  injury 
to  himself  and  others  of  a  like  nature,  though  not  perhaps 
to  equal  extent,  nor  in  so  glaring  a  manner,  as  the  spend- 
thrift who  squanders,  in  vice  and  folly,  his  paternal  estate. 
Crops  exhaust  the  fertility  of  the  soil  in  proportion  to 
the  nourishment  they  respectively  draw  from  it.  To  keep 
up  our  comparison  with  the  animal  kingdom,  we  may 
liken  our  grain  crops  to  our  cattle  and  horses,  which  are 
gross  feeders,  and  consume  a  large  quantity  of  food  ;  and 
our  grass  and  roots  to  sheep  and  swine,  which  consume 
less,  which  thrive  on  comparatively  scanty  and  coarse 
fare,  and  in  a  measure  requite  us  for  their  food,  by  their 
intrinsic  value,  and  by  the  fertility  which  they  impart  to 
the  soil.  The  hog  and  the  sheep,  the  grass  and  the  roots, 
will  live  upon  the  pasture  or  soil  which  will  not  sustain 
the  more  gross  feeders — the  grain  and  the  cattle — yet, 
like  the  latter,  they  will  only  thrive  well  when  well  fed. 


CROPPING  AND  MANURING.  189 

Von  Thaer,  who  has  not,  perhaps,  his  superior  in  the 
practical  and  scientific  business  of  farming  any  where, 
has  turned  his  attention,  for  several  years,  to  a  series  of 
experiments  and  observations,  with  a  view  to  ascertain 
the  degree  of  diminution  or  augmentation  of  fertility, 
which  soils  ordinarily  experience  from  the  culture  of  the 
principal  farm-crops,  and  has  combined  the  results  of  his 
observations  in  a  series  of  tables.  Although  these  do 
not  possess  perfect  accuracy,  for  any  thing  like  this  would 
be  impossible  from  the  nature  of  the  inquiry,  they  never- 
theless serve  as  useful  data  to  farmers  who  are  anxious  to 
preserve  or  to  increase  the  fertihty  of  their  soils,  by  ju- 
dicious rotations,  and  by  applying  all  the  means  of  fertility 
which  the  farm  affords. 

"  The  vegetative  power,"  says  '  British  Husbandry,' 
"  is  supposed  to  be  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of  hu- 
mus, (or  soluble  vegetable  matter,)  or  mould,  which  is 
contained  in  the  soil,  and  its  consumption  has  been  found 
to  be  regulated  according  to  the  amount  of  nutritive  mat- 
ter consumed  by  the  crops  which  are  grown  upon  it. 
The  degrees  of  exhaustion  thus  occasioned,  have  only 
been  fixed  by  naturalists  with  any  degree  of  certainty,  in 
so  far  as  regards  the  usual  species  of  cultivated  grain  and 
pulse  ;  for,  as  to  the  other  products  of  the  earth,  although 
they  have  doubtless  similar  effects  when  similarly  repeat- 
ed, yet  those  which  consist  of  vegetable  roots  and  grasses, 
and  which  are  drawn  from  the  land  before  they  have  per- 
fected their  seed,  are  nevertheless — whether  from  the  in- 
fluence attributed  to  their  shade  upon  the  soil,  from 
sustenance  drawn  from  the  air  and  water,  or  from  other 
causes  with  which  we  are  not  acquainted — only  viewed 
as  ameliorating  crops.  Corn  crops  are,  however,  consid- 
ered respectively  to  exhaust  in  proportions  which  render 
the  proportion  of  about  4|  bushels  of  wheat  equal  to  that 
of  6  bushels  of  rye,  8|  of  barley,  and  12  of  oats." 

"According  to  all  the  experiments  which  have  been 
made,  there  is  reason  to  suppose,  however,  that  upon  a 
soil  of  moderate  fertility,  an  average  crop  of  wheat  em- 
poverishes  the  land  to  the  extent  of  40  per  cent.,  while 
one  of  rye  only  produces  that  effect  as  far  as  30.     Al- 


190  THE   EFFECTS    OF 

though  barley  is  more  exhausting  than  oats,  yet,  upon 
strong  land,  in  a  less  perfect  state  of  culture,  the  latter 
produces  proportionably  larger  crops,  consequently  ab- 
sorbs more  nutriment ;  and,  for  this  reason,  they  may 
be  both  stated  at  25  per  cent. 

"  The  exhaustion  by  these  crops  is  proportionably  re- 
paired, and  the  land  is  restored  to  its  former  nutritive 
powers,  in  three  ways,  namely — 

"  By  the  application  of  putrescent  manure  ;  according 
to  its  quantity  and  quality. 

"By  the  ground  being  left  a  certain  time  under  pasture  ; 
according  to  the  number  of  stock  which  it  can  support. 

''  By  the  operation  of  a  summer  fallow  ;  according  to 
the  manner  in  which  it  is  performed." 

Von  Thaer  considers  the  exhaustion  by  grain  crops  in 
the  following  relative  proportions  : — Wheat  4  degrees, 
rye  SJ,  barley  2J,  oats  ly^^,  per  bushel  of  product  ;  that 
upon  poor  soils,  whose  original  fecundity  is  40,  according 
to  the  scale  given  in  the  preceding  chapter,  a  fallow  adds 
10  degrees  to  its  fertility,  pasture  20,  and  8  tons  of  ma- 
nure, of  ordinary  quality,  50  degrees — so  that  the  manure 
and  fallow,  or  manure  and  pasture,  add  60  or  70  degrees, 
and  are  more  than  sufficient  to  double  what  the  crop  would 
have  been  without  them.  Without  them,  a  crop  of  rye 
would  have  yielded  but  five  bushels  per  acre  ;  with  them, 
the  yield  would  be  7^  to  10  bushels.  A  fallow  is  bene- 
ficial, not  only  on  account  of  the  fertilizing  properties  it 
may  draw  from  the  atmosphere,  and  by  the  influence  of 
working  the  land,  but  from  the  weeds  and  vegetable  mat- 
ters which  it  buries  in  the  soil.  Pasture  is  fertilized  by 
the  droppings  of  the  stock,  and  the  rich  sward  it  gives  to 
the  plough  and  to  the  tilled  crop. 

In  the  two  following  tables,  the  journal,  which  is  about 
two  thirds  of  an  English  acre,  is  the  measure  of  land  ex- 
perimented upon.  The  schiffel  is  more  than  a  bushel 
and  a  half,  Winchester  measure.  These  tables  are  pre- 
dicated upon  accurate  experiments,  and  show  the  aug- 
mentation or  diminution  of  fertility,  caused  by  the  crops, 
the  manures,  the  pasture,  and  the  fallow. 


CROPPING  AND  MANURING. 


191 


TRIENNIAL   SYSTEM. 


Fecundity. 


Fallow, 

Augmentation. 
10  deg. 

Diminution. 

6  4-10  loads  of  manure, 

67  deg. 

Rye,  6  schifFels, 
Barley,  6  do.     . 
Fallow,     .          .       . 

10  deg. 

30  deg. 
21  deg. 

Rye,  3J  schifFels,     . 
Oats,  4       do.    . 

171  deg. 
10  deg. 

Fallow,  light  folded. 
Rye,            .        .        . 
Oats,           .       .       .       . 

28  deg. 

20  deg. 
101  deg. 

115  deg.  109  deg. 

By  which  course,  land  would  gain  six  degrees  of  fer- 
tility in  nine  years,  provided  the  manure  was  that  of  well- 
fed  cattle  ;  but  if  principally  straw,  it  probably  would  oc- 
casion no  amendment. 


ALTERNATE   SYSTEM. 

Fecundity. 

Crops  and  manures. 

^ 

Augmentation. 

Diminution. 

9  loads  of  dung, 

90  deg. 

Potatoes,*  80  schifFels, 

10  deg. 

30  deg. 

Barley,  9             do. 

31i  deg. 

Peas,   .... 

10  deg. 

3|  loads  of  manure,  . 

37i  deg. 

Rye,  8  schifFels, 

40  deg. 

Clover,  mown. 

12  deg. 

Pasture, 

20  deg. 

Oats,  11  schifFels,     . 

27i  deg. 

1691  deg.        139  deg. 

♦The  augmentation  of  fertility  is  here  added,  because  of  the  culture 
bestowed  upo^the  potatoes  as  a  fallow  crop,  the  value  of  which  is 
considered  equal  to  10  degrees. 


192  THE   EFFECTS    OF 

This  course  would  augment  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  in 
eight  years,  SOJ  degrees,  besides  producing  crops  of 
superior  value.  This  increase  is  owing  to  the  clover 
and  pasture,  and  the  additional  quantity,  as  well  as  su- 
perior quality  of  the  dung,  made  by  cattle  fed  upon  roots 
and  clover.  Land  is  progressively  improved  by  the  pro- 
duction of  good  crops,  consumed  upon  the  farm,  and  the 
manure  which  they  supply,  if  the  latter  is  properly  hus- 
banded and  applied. 

This  will  be  rendered  still  more  apparent  by  the  fol- 
lowing summary  of  four  different  rotations  actually  carried 
into  effect,  and  each  consisting  of  120  journals,  or  equal 
to  76.1.6  11-5  acres  Enghsh,  and  bearing  the  crops  here 
mentioned,  after  deducting  the  seed. 

No.  1. 

Courses  of  crops.  Product  per  journal. 

Fallow  dunged. 

Rye,  ....  8J  schifFels. 

Barley,      ....  8J     do. 

Oats,         ....  8       do. 

Clover  and  mown,      .  .  14  centnus.* 

Ditto  pasture  two  years,  together  with  170  journals  of 
extra  meadow  and  sheep-pasture. 

No.  2. 

Oats  upon  pasture  ley,          .  12  schifFels. 
Fallow  dunged. 

Rye,          ....  10       do. 

Barley,     .          .          .          .  10       do. 

Rye,          ....  5        do. 

Clover  and  mown,      .          .  20  centnus. 
Ditto  pastured  two  years,  together  with  100  journals 
of  extra  pasture  meadow,  dunged. 

No.  3. 

Potatoes,  ...         87  schifFels. 

Barley,     ....  12       do. 

Clover,     ....         24  centnus. 

*  The  centnu  is  103  lbs.  English. 


CROPPING  AND  MANURING. 


193 


Oats, 

Peas, 

Rye, 

Tares, 

Rye, 

Meadow  dunged, 

Besides  100  journals  sheep 


14  schifFels. 
6       do. 

10       do. 
20  centnus. 
9  schifFels. 

15  centnus. 
pasture. 


No.  4. 


Oats  upon  pasture  ley, 

Fallow,  sown  both  before  and  after 


14  schifFels. 


with  winter  and  spr 

fodder, 
Rye, 
Peas, 
Rye, 
Potatoes, 
Barley, 
Clover  mown. 


ng  tares  for 


20  centnus. 
10  schiflels. 

6       do. 

9  do. 
87  do. 
12  do. 
24  centnus. 


Ditto  pastured  with  sheep  2  years. 
Meadow,  150  journals  dunged,  15  centnus. 

The  produce  of  these  several  crops,  both  in  fodder 
and  manure,  as  well  as  in  grain,  and  the  profit  gained  by 
feeding  of  stock,  were  then  summed  up,  and  being  calcu- 
lated according  to  the  price  of  grain,  were  reduced  to 
schifFels  of  rye,  from  which  were  deducted  the  charges 
of  cultivation,  thus  afFording  a  parallel  between  the  dif- 
ferent courses,  as  follows  : — 


Product   of 
straw. 

Produce  of  fod- 
der, reduced   in 
wt.   to   an  esti- 
mate in  hay. 

Manure. 

Profit  on 
cattle. 

Profit  of 
grain. 

Nett 
balance. 

Centnus. 

Centnus. 

Centnus. 

Schiffels. 

Schiffels. 

SchifFels. 

1 

4173 

2936 

14219 

992 

1948 

1869 

2 

6464 

4650 

22228 

1651 

2958 

3028 

3 

7916 

9120 

29272 

2430 

2960 

3458 

4 

10973 

12315 

41791 

3178 

4323 

5188 

It  appears  from  these  results,  that  the  fertility  of  the 
soil,  and  the  consequent  profits  of  the  farm,  were  in- 
creased, 

17  XV. 


194     RULES  AND  SUGGESTIONS  IN  FARMING. 

First.  In  proportion  to  the  augmentation  of  manure,  by 
reason  of  meadow,  green  crops,  and  roots  ; 

Secondly.  In  proportion  to  the  increased  ratio  which 
the  above-named  crops  and  pasture  bear  to  the  grain 
crops.     And, 

Thirdly.   In  proportion  to  the  amount  of  pasture. 

And  it  will  be  further  seen,  that  the  courses  were 
profitable,  and  the  fertility  of  the  soil  increased,  in  propor- 
tion as  green,  leguminous,  and  root  crops  were  alternated 
with  grain  crops — the  two  first,  and  least  profitable  courses, 
giving  three  grain  crops  in  successive  years — the  third 
course  intervening  clover,  peas,  or  tares  between  the  grain 
crops — and  the  fourth  and  most  profitable  course  alter- 
nating dry,  green,  leguminous,  and  root  crops,  followed  by 
clover  mown  or  pastured  three  years. 

The  inference  from  these  experiments,  made  by  one  of 
the  most  intelligent  and  careful  of  men,  is,  that  if  we  would 
preserve  or  increase  the  fertility  of  our  lands,  and  thus 
augment  the  profits  of  our  labor,  we  should  not  sow  dry 
crops  for  two  successive  years,  upon  the  same  field — but 
alternate  them,  as  far  as  practicable,  with  roots,  legumens, 
green  crops,  meadow,  and  pasture. 

The  reader  will  find  these  matters  more  largely  treat- 
ed of  in  '  British  Husbandry,'  and  particularly  in  Von 
Thaer's  works  on  agriculture. 


CHAPTER  XX. 

RULES  AND  SUGGESTIONS  IN  FARMING. 

We  shall  now  proceed  to  offer  some  rules  and  sugges- 
tions in  husbandry,  of  general  apphcation,  to  enable  far- 
mers, and  particularly  novices  in  the  business,  to  judge  of 
the  character  and  quahties  of  their  soil, — of  its  adaptation 
to  particular  crops, — of  the  causes  of  deterioration, — and 
of  the  means  of  perpetuating  its  fertility  ;  or,  if  worn  out 
or  empoverished,  of  restoring  it  to  its  primitive  vigor. 
These  facts  or  suggestions  form  a  sort  of  synopsis,  or 


RULES  AND  SUGGESTIONS  IN  FARMING.     195 

epitome,  of  what  has  been  stated  in  the  preceding  essays 
of  the  principles  and  practice  of  the  New  Husbandry. 
Though  they  may  not  in  all  cases  fully  apply,  they  will 
in  the  main,  we  believe,  be  sound  and  useful. 

1.  The  essential  elements  of  a  good  soil,  are  sand, 
clay,  lime,  and  organic  matter.  Magnesia,  iron,  and  vari- 
ous other  minerals  and  salts,  are  often  found  blended  with 
the  preceding  ;  but  in  general  they  are  not  considered  as 
exercising  a  great  influence  upon  its  fertility,  except  they 
exist  in  more  than  ordinary  proportions. 

2.  The  presence  of  sand,  clay,  and  vegetable  matter 
in  a  soil,  is  deemed  indispensable  to  all  crops  ;  and  lime, 
in  some  of  its  forms,  is  considered  indispensable  to  wheat, 
and  perhaps  some  other  crops,  and  prejudicial  to  none, 
where  it  is  in  moderate  quantity. 

3.  The  presence  of  sand  and  clay  is  readily  detected 
by  the  experienced  eye  ;  that  of  vegetable  matter  by  the 
consistence  and  color  of  the  soil  ;  and  that  of  carbonate 
of  lime,  or  calcareous  earth,  by  drying  a  portion  of  soil, 
and  pouring  upon  it  some  acid,  as  the  muriatic,  or  even 
strong  vinegar.  If  it  contain  any  considerable  portion  of 
carbonate  of  lime,  effervescence  will  take  place,  and  the 
carbonic  acid  be  expelled  by  the  application.  The  pro- 
portions in  the  elements  of  a  soil  are  ascertained  by  ch.^m- 
ical  analysis. 

4.  Sand  is  the  most  essential  in  the  earthy  ingredients 
of  soils,  and  most  predominates  in  them,  though  where  it 
exceeds  eighty-two  per  cent,  the  soil  is  virtually  barren, 
for  it  is  then  too  porous  to  retain  long  either  moisture  or 
manure.  Clay  is  next  in  importance  and  proportion  ;  but 
when  it  greatly  preponderates,  the  soil  becomes  stubborn, 
is  hard  to  be  worked,  is  too  retentive  of  moisture,  too  im- 
pervious to  atmospheric  influence,  and  is  more  or  less  un- 
productive. 

Lime  exists  in  the  smallest  proportion,  and  is  least 
essential  of  the  three  common  earths,  and  from  two  to  four 
per  cent,  of  the  upper  tillable  stratum  is  all  that  is  deemed 
essential  to  the  growth  and  maturity  of  any  crop.  When 
Hme  is  in  excess  it  induces  barrenness,  though  calcareous 
soils  are  considered  conducive  to  the  health  of  the  neigh- 


196     RULES  AND  SUGGESTIONS  IN  FARMING. 

borhood,  imbibing  or  neutralizing,  like  chlorine,  the  im- 
purities of  the  atmosphere.  Organic  matter,  that  is,  vege- 
table or  animal,  is  indispensable  in  a  soil.  It  is  the  food  of 
plants.  Yet  even  this  is  often  found  in  excess,  as  in  peat, 
and  in  too  highly  manured  grounds,  and  is  often  insoluble, 
or  infertile,  till  mixed  with  larger  portions  of  earthy  mat- 
ters, or  brought  in  contact  with  fermenting  materials. 

5.  When  there  is  perceived  to  be  a  deficiency  of  sand, 
of  clay,  or  lime  in  a  soil,  ibe  defect  may  be  remedied, 
and  permanent  improvement  effected,  by  an  admixture  of 
the  deficient  element  or  elements.  When  there  is  an  ex- 
cess of  either,  it  can  only  be  remedied  by  a  similar  but 
more  tedious  process.  Thus  a  load  of  clay,  properly 
blended  with  an  arid  sand, — or  a  load  of  sand  mixed  with 
a  stubborn  clay,  or  a  few  bushels  of  mild  lime,  or  marl,  or 
ashes,  upon  a  soil  deficient  in  calcareous  earth,  often  prove 
of  more  ultimate  service  than  a  load  of  barn-yard  manure. 
But, 

6.  Both  lime  and  dung,  the  latter  in  far  the  greatest 
proportion,  are  taken  up  and  consumed  by  the  growing 
crop  ;  and  if  the  crops  are  not  consumed  upon  the  field, 
so  that  their  principal  elements  return  again  directly  to 
the  soil,  the  land  must  be  periodically  replenished  w^ith 
thejji,  or  it  will  soon  become  deficient  in  these  elements  of 
fertility. 

7.  The  sand  and  clay  of  the  soil  may  be  likened,  in 
their  offices,  to  the  stomach  of  the  animal — the  recipient 
of  food  ;  the  lime  and  salts  to  the  gastric  juices,  which 
facilitate  the  digestive  process  in  the  animal  stomach,  and 
to  the  condiments,  as  salt,  &c.,  which  we  employ  to  stim- 
ulate the  digestive  organs  and  promote  health  ;  and  the 
organic  matters  in  the  soil  to  the  food  which  feeds  and 
fattens  the  animal. 

8.  If  the  crops  grown  upon  a  soil  are  permitted  to  de- 
cay upon,  and  return  again  to  it,  its  fertility  will  not  be 
diminished,  but  rather  improved.  It  is  upon  this  princi- 
ple that  the  Flemings  have  converted  sterile  lands  into  fer- 
tile ones.  They  plant  the  larch,  and  in  a  few  years  the 
soil  becomes  so  enriched  by  the  foliage  of  the  trees,  as  to 
afford,  after  the  w'ood  is  cleared  off,  tolerable  crops,  and 


RULES  AND  SUGGESTIONS  IN  FARMING.     197 

the  nucleus  of  greater  improvement.  But  when  the  crop 
is  carried  off,  and  nothing  returned,  deterioration  must 
take  place — the  food  for  the  vegetables  must  undergo  a 
continual  diminution.  This  is  a  plain  exposition  of  the 
cause  of  hnds^  lo earing  out ;  and  at  the  same  time  of  the 
means  of  preventing  their  wearing  out. 

9.  All  the  elements  of  a  good  soil  being  present,  its 
fertility,  and  consequent  profit,  will  in  a  measure  depend 
upon  its  exemption  from  an  excess  of  water,  which,  like 
fire,  is  a  good  servant,  but  a  bad  master.  This  excess 
may  arise  from  spouts  and  springs  bursting  up  from  below, 
— from  surface-waters,  where  the  ground  is  level,  or  near- 
ly so,  settling  and  reposing  upon  a  tenacious  soil  or  sub- 
soil, or  from  waters  flowing  from  higher  grounds.  Hence 
the  importance  of  draining.  We  do  not  know  of  any 
farm-crop  which  thrives  upon  a  soil  habitually  wet,  either 
upon  the  surface,  or  within  the  natural  range  of  the  roots. 
Water  meadows  and  rice  grounds  profit  by  periodical 
floodings,  but  they  are  injured  by  habitual  wetness. 

10.  Fertility  depends  much,  also,  upon  the  quality  and 
properties  of  the  subsoil.  If  this  is  bad,  or  comes  too 
near  the  surface,  its  faults  may  be  corrected  by  furrow- 
draining,  and  the  trench  or  subsoil  plough,  or  by  bringing 
it  up,  in  small  portions  at  a  time,  or  during  a  course  of 
crops,  to  the  ameliorating  influence  of  the  atmosphere, 
and  incorporating  it  with  the  upper  stratum,  or  proper 
soil. 

11.  If  a  soil,  under  good  management,  does  not  return 
good  crops,  or  if  the  crops  are  found  annually  to  diminish, 
it  is  a  sure  indication  that  there  is  a  deficiency  in  some 
of  the  primary  elements  of  a  good  soil,  that  the  subsoil 
has  a  malign  influence,  or  that  there  is  an  excess  of  water. 
It  is  the  province  of  the  manager  to  seek  out  the  cause 
of  the  evil,  and  to  apply  the  proper  remedy,  be  it  lime, 
manure,  drainage,  or  deeper  tilth.  In  doing  this,  a  knowl- 
edge of  natural  science  will  be  found  of  great  advantage. 

12.  The  small-grain  crops  are  the  greatest  exhausters 
of  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  on  account  of  their  narrow  system 
of  leaves,  which  draw  sparingly  from  the  atmosphere, 
and  the  large  portion  of  nutriment  they  extract  from  it  to 

17* 


198  RULES   AND    SUGCiESTIONS    IN    FARMING. 

mature  their  seeds.  The  remark  extends  to  the  narrow- 
leaved  grasses,  converted  into  hay,  when  they  are  permit- 
ted to  ripen  their  seeds  in  the  fieJd. 

13.  Indian  corn,  tobacco,  and  beans  maybe  embraced 
in  the  second  class  of  exhausting  crops  ;  for,  although  they 
have  broad  leaves,  and  derive  much  nourishment  from  the 
atmosphere,  they  are  nevertheless  gross  feeders,  bulky 
crops,  and  leave  very  little  upon  the  soil  to  compensate 
for  what  they  take  from  it.  But  great  economy  in  dung  may 
be  effected  by  feeding  these  crops  with  the  long  manure  of 
the  yards  and  stables,  instead  of  summer-yarding  it,  as 
many  farmers  are  wont  to  do.  These  crops  will  feed 
upon  what  is  otherwise  lost  in  the  yard, — the  gaseous 
matters  of  the  dung.  These  afford  exactly  what  the 
crops  named  want,  and  at  the  time  they  want  it. 

14.  Roots  come  next  in  the  order  of  exhausting  crops  ; 
but  they  in  part  compensate  for  what  they  take  from  the 
soil  by  the  ameliorating  influence  they  have  upon  it,  pulver- 
izing and  freeing  it  from  weeds — by  their  roots  and  the 
culture  they  demand. 

15.  Green  crops,  that  is,  clover,  buckwheat,  rye,  oats, 
turnips,  and  even  weeds  before  they  seed,  ploughed  un- 
der as  food  for  plants  in  their  green^  succulent  state,  are 
enriching  crops,  and  powerful  auxiliaries  in  keeping  up 
the  fertility  of  the  farm  ;  but  they  are  too  seldom  resorted 
to  for  this  purpose. 

16.  Depasturing  with  cattle,  and  particularly  with 
sheep,  enriches  a  soil.  According  to  Von  Thaer,  it  adds 
20  per  cent,  to  the  fertility  of  an  ordinary  soil,  that  is,  in 
five  years  it  will  double  its  fecundity.  This  results  from 
the  fact,  that  the  crop  is  returned  to  the  soil  in  the  drop- 
pings and  stale  of  the  animals  which  crop  it. 

17.  Not  only  do  different  crops  tend  to  exhaust  differ- 
ent properties  of  the  soil,  denominated  their  specific  food 
— but  different  crops,  in  consequence  of  their  different 
systems  of  roots,  draw  their  food  from  different  portions 
of  the  soil  :  the  fibrous-rooted  from  near  the  surface,  and 
the  tap-rooted  from  below,  and  partially  from  the  sub- 
soil, into  which  a  portion  of  the  humus  is  carried  down 
by  the  rains,  and  into  which  the  tap-roots  penetrate  to 
obtain  it. 


RULES  AND  SUGGESTIONS  IN  FARMING.     199 

IS.  Lime  and  clay  are  essential  in  a  wheat  soil.  In- 
dian com  delights  in  a  rich,  dry,  sandy  loam,  and  makes  a 
good  return  on  light  sands,  provided  it  is  well  fed,  that  is, 
well  dunged.  Turnips  excel  on  dry,  sandy  soils,  though 
ruta  baga  requires  that  they  be  rich.  Barley  does  best 
on  loams  in  which  there  is  considerable  clay,  as  do  the 
beet  and  pea.  Oats  and  potatoes  find  a  congenial  home  in 
rich,  moist  grounds,  though  for  the  latter  the  surface  stra- 
tum should  be  light  and  mellow.  Of  the  grasses,  the  tap- 
rooted,  as  the  clover,  lucerne,  &c.  require  a  deep  soil,  per- 
meable to  their  roots,  and  free  from  water  ;  the  fibrous- 
rooted,  as  the  tall  oat,  orchard-grass,  &c.  thrive  upon 
soils  that  are  dry  and  shallow  ;  and  the  rough-stalked 
meadow,  bejit,  and  some  of  the  festuca  and  agrostis  fami- 
hes,  are  congenial  to,  and  often  natural  in,  moist  or  swampy 
grounds.  The  timothy,  the  herds-grass  of  the  Eastern 
states,  our  main  dependance  for  winter  forage,  adapts  its 
habits,  it  is  said,  to  its  location — being  fibrous-rooted 
upon  dry,  and  bulbous-rooted  upon  moist  grounds — and 
therefore  suited  to  either. 

19.  The  natural  fertility  of  a  farm  cannot  ordinarily  be 
kept  up,  or  increased,  where  arable  and  mixed  husbandry 
prevail,  from  the  resources  of  the  farm  and  cattle,  without 
a  resort  to  an  alternation  or  change  of  crops.  Although 
the  diminution  of  fertility  may  be  imperceptible  for  a  time, 
— and  although  some  soils  seem  naturally  and  peculiarly 
adapted  to  certain  crops, — ^}^et  the  stock  of  humus  or  of 
specific  food  is  constantly  diminishing,  and  will  ultimately 
fail,  if  the  same  crop,  or  class  of  crops,  is  grown  upon  the 
same  ground  in  successive  years.  Whether,  according  to 
the  theory  of  De  Candolla  and  Malcaire,  the  excrementi- 
tious  matter  thrown  into  the  soil  by  the  growing  crop  is 
poisonous  to  its  species  ;  or  whether,  as  we  maintain, 
each  species  requires  and  exhausts,  wholly  or  partially,  a 
specific  food  in  the  soil,  suited  to  its  particular  wants, — 
we  will  not  stop  now  to  inquire  ;  but  it  is  a  fact  established 
by  general  experience,  that  an  annual  change  of  crops 
upon  a  field,  while  under  tillage,  tends  very  much  to 
economize  its  fertility,  and  to  increase  the  profits  of  the 
labor  bestowed  upon  it.      Hence, 


200     RULES  AND  SUGGESTIONS  IN  FARMING. 

20.  It  has  been  laid  down  as  a  sound  rule  in  farming, 
that  two  white,  or  grain,  or  culmiferous  crops,  should  not 
be  made  to  succeed  each  other  in  the  same  field  ;  but  that 
each  of  these  should  be  alternated  with,  or  preceded  and 
followed  by,  a  green,  a  grass,  a  root,  or  a  leguminous  crop. 

21.  Where  the  soil  of  a  farm  will  admit  of  it,  a  good 
course  is  to  alternate, — 1.  roots  or  Indian  corn,  with 
long  manure  upon  the  sod  ;  2.  grain,  with  grass-seeds  ; 
3.  grass  for  two  years  ;  or,  grass  one  year  ;  4.  grain  and 
grass-seeds  upon  the  first  furrow  ;  and,  5.  and  6.  meadow 
and  pasture.  The  poorer,  or  more  sandy  the  soil,  the 
oftener  should  it  be  returned  to  grass,  particularly  to  clo- 
ver and  pasture. 

22.  Geologists  refer  to  three  distinct  formations,  as 
constituting  the  crust  of  the  earth — the  primitive^  as  con- 
taining little  lime  and  no  organic  remains  ;  the  transition, 
containing  lime  and  organic  remains  ;  and  the  secondary, 
abounding  extensively  in  both  these  elements  of  fertility. 
Their  natural  relative  fertility  is  in  the  reverse  order  in 
which  they  are  named,  the  secondary  being  best,  and  em- 
bracing most  of  the  great  basin  of  the  Mississippi,  and  the 
country  drained  by  its  tributary  streams.  We  say  noth- 
ing of  alluvial  formations,  made  by  the  ocean  and  rivers. 
These  deposits  partake  of  the  character  of  the  country 
from  whence  they  are  brought,  and  are  more  or  less  fer- 
tile, according  to  the  fertility  of  the  districts  from  which 
their  soil  is  derived,  and  the  force  of  the  currents  by  which 
the  deposits  have  been  made, — a  rapid  current  leaving 
only  the  coarser  and  heavier  materials,  while  the  finer  and 
richer  matters  subside  where  the  current  is  slow  and  less 
agitated. 

23.  The  three  great  formations  which  we  have  men- 
tioned, possess,  it  is  well  known,  characteristics  differing 
from  each  other.  They  grow,  naturally,  many  plants 
peculiar  to  each,  and  they  are  adapted  to  difi^erent  branch- 
es of  husbandry,  and  to  different  farm-crops.  The 
primitive  will  not  generally  grow  good  wheat  ;  but  is 
suited  to  grass,  oats,  potatoes,  &c.  The  transition  is 
adapted  to  natural  grasses,  and  to  most  of  the  arable 
crops,  particularly  to  the  cereal  class  ;  and  the  secondary 


RULES  AND  SUGGESTIONS  IN  FARMING.    201 

to  the  cultivated    grasses,  to  roots,  and  particularly  to 
wheat.* 

24.  There  are  ocher  circumstances,  in  regard  to  the 
location  of  a  farm,  which  demand  the  consideration  of  the 
master,  which  refer  to  latitude  and  elevation.  Plants 
have  their  natural  zone,  or  climate,  beyond  which  they  do 
not  grow,  or  thrive  but  imperfectly.  There  is  a  differ- 
ence in  every  degree,  or  seventy  miles,  of  latitude,  upon 
tide-water,  of  five  or  six  days,  in  the  forwardness  of  nat- 
ural vegetation  in  the  spring,  and  nearly  a  like  difference 
in  the  blighting  indications  of  autumn.  But  what  is  of 
equal  importance,  but  less  generally  regarded,  is  the  dif- 
ference in  climate  produced  by  altitude.  Three  hundred 
feet  of  elevation  is  considered  equal  to  one  degree  of  lat- 
itude, in  its  influence  upon  temperature.  Hence  it  does 
not  follow,  that  because  a  crop  will  thrive  and  ripen  in  a 
given  latitude  upon  tide-water,  it  will  thrive  and  ripen 
well  in  the  same  latitude  at  a  higher  elevation.  On  the 
contrary,  to  be  better  understood,  we  say,  that,  other 
things  being  alike,  the  climate  on  tide-water,  in  latitude 
42°,  is  similar  to  that  of  a  place  three  hundred  feet  eleva- 
ted above  tide-water  in  latitude  41°,  or  of  a  place  nine 
hundred  feet  above  tide-water  in  latitude  39°  ;  so  that  the 
table-land  of  Mexico,  in  latitude  16°,  at  an  elevation  of 
seven   thousand    eight   hundred   feet   above   the    ocean, 

*  An  able  writer  in  the  Edinburgh  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture, 
in  reference  to  these  formations,  terms  the  primitive,  which  it  seems 
comprises  the  most  elevated  lands  in  Scotland,  the  region  of  heath  and 
coarse  herbage  ;  the  transition,  the  natural  region  of  the  grasses  ;  and 
the  secondary,  the  region  of  the  cultivated  grasses,  and  particularly 
adapted  to  arable  and  alternate  husbandry.  He  assigns  to  each  a  par- 
ticular and  distinct  breed  of  cattle.  To  the  first,  or  higher  region,  a 
thick-haired,  small,  hardy  breed  ;  to  the  second,  or  middle  region,  those 
of  large  size  ;  and  to  the  third,  or  lower  region,  those  that  are  more 
sensitive  to  cold,  gross  feeders,  and  that  acquire  the  greatest  weight. 
He  then  goes  on  to  show,  from  numerous  examples,  that  the  several 
breeds  are  the  most  profitable  in  the  several  districts  assigned  them  ; 
and  that  they  have  been  manifestly  improved,  in  most  cases,  by  a  judi- 
cious cross  with  the  improved  short  horns.  There  is  much  good  sense 
in  the  writer's  remarks  ;  and  although  the  description  of  the  three  for- 
mations does  not  fully  apply  in  the  United  States,  the  remarks  as  to 
the  influence  of  altitude  or  climate,  upon  different  breeds  of  domestic 
animals,  are  entitled  to  high  consideration. 


202     RULES  AND  SUGGESTIONS  IN  FARMING. 

should  possess  about  the  same  mean  temperature,  and 
produce  the  same  natural  and  artificial  growth,  as  Kings- 
ton, upon  the  Hudson,  though  the  extremes,  both  of  heat 
and  cold,  are  probably  greater  at  the  northern  than  they 
are  at  the  southern  point.*  These  data  are  assumed  from 
recollection,  and  may  not  be  precisely  correct. 

25.  The  means  of  preserving,  and  of  augmenting,  the 
fertihty  of  the  soil,  are  sufficiently  indicated  in  the  pre- 
ceding suggestions.      They  consist  mainly  in  manuring, 

*  *' All  the  weotern  part  of  the  intendancy  of  Vera  Cruz,''  says 
Humboldt,  in  his  New  Spain,  "  forms  the  declivity  of  the  Cordilleras 
of  Anahuac.  In  the  space  of  a  day,  the  inhabitants  descend  from  the 
regions  of  eternal  snow  to  the  plains  in  the  vicinity  of  the  sea,  where 
the  most  suffocating  heat  prevails.  The  admirable  order  with  which 
different  tribes  of  vegetables  rise  one  above  another,  by  strata  as  it 
were,  is  nowhere  more  perceptible  than  in  ascending  from  the  port  of 
Vera  Cruz  to  the  table-land  of  Perote.  We  see  there  the  physiogno- 
my of  the  country,  the  aspect  of  the  sky,  the  form  of  plants,  the  fig- 
ures of  animals,  the  manners  of  the  inhabitants,  and  the  kind  of  culti- 
vation followed  by  them,  assume  a  different  appearance  at  every  step 
of  our  progress. 

"  As  we  ascend,  Nature  appears  gradually  less  animated,  the  beauty 
of  the  vegetable  forms  diminishes,  the  shoots  become  less  succulent, 
and  the  flowers  less  colored.  The  aspect  of  the  Mexican  oak  quiets 
the  alarms  of  a  traveller  newly  landed  at  Vera  Cruz.  Its  presence  de- 
monstrates to  him  that  he  has  left  behind  him  the  zone  so  justly  dread- 
ed by  the  people  of  the  north,  under  which  the  yellow  fever  exercises 
its  ravages  in  New  Spain.  This  inferior  limit  of  oaks  warns  the  colonist 
who  inhabits  the  central  table-land  how  far  he  may  descend  towards 
the  coast,  without  dread  of  the  mortal  disease  of  the  vomito.  Forests  of 
liquid  amber,  near  Xalapa,  announce  by  the  freshness  of  their  verdure 
that  this  is  the  elevation  at  which  the  clouds,  suspended  over  the  ocean, 
come  in  contact  with  the  basaltic  summits  of  the  Cordilleras.  A  little 
higher,  near  la  Bandarila,  the  nutritive  fruit  of  the  banana-tree  comes 
no  longer  to  maturity.  In  this  foggy  and  cold  region,  therefore,  want 
spurs  on  the  Indian  to  labor,  and  excites  his  industry.  At  the  height 
of  San  Miguel,  pines  begin  to  mingle  with  the  oaks,  which  are  found 
by  the  traveller  as  high  as  the  elevated  plains  of  Perote,  where  he  be- 
holds the  delightful  aspect  of  fields  sown  with  wheat.  Eight  hundred 
metres  higher,  (two  thousand  six  hundred  feet,)  the  coldness  of 
the  climate  will  no  longer  admit  of  the  vegetation  of  oaks  ;  and  pines 
alone  cover  the  rock,  whose  summits  enter  the  zone  of  eternal  snow. 
Thus  in  a  few  hours  the  naturalist,  in  this  miraculous  country,  ascends 
the  whole  scale  of  vegetation,  from  the  heliconiaand  the  banana-plant, 
whose  glossy  leaves  swell  out  into  extraordinary  dimensions,  to  the 
stunted  parachyma  of  the  resinous  trees." 


RULES  AND  SUGGESTIONS  IN  FARMING.    203 

draining,  the  admixture  of  earthy  materials,  and  the  alter- 
nation of  crops. 

26.  Stable  and  fold-yard  dung  is  most  profitably  applied 
in  an  unfermented,  or  partially  fermented  state,  and  to 
hoed  and  autumn-ripening  crops.  Fermentation  dimin- 
ishes the  fertilizing  properties  of  manure.  If  this  ferment- 
ation takes  place  in  the  soil,  the  gases,  the  volatile  por- 
tion which  first  escapes  from  the  putrefying  mass,  are 
retained  in  the  mould,  and  serve  to  feed  the  crop.  If 
fermentation  takes  place  in  the  yard,  or  upon  the  surface, 
the  gases  are  wasted,  and  the  dung  undergoes  further 
loss  from  the  rains  which  ordinarily  leach  it.  Long  ma- 
nure should  be  spread  broadcast,  and  well  buried  b}  the 
plough. 

27.  Short  manure,  or  that  which  has  undergone  fer- 
mentation, is  most  beneficial  when  harrowed  in,  upon 
arable  lands,  or  spread  upon  the  surface  of  grass  grounds. 

28.  Old  meadows  may  be  kept  in  a  productive  state, 
in  ordinary  cases,  by  a  triennial  top-dressing  with  manure 
or  compost ;  or  may  be  renovated,  and  restored  to  a  pro- 
ductive state,  by  the  modes  recommended  in  the  essay 
which  follows, Chapter  XXI. 

29.  Composts  are  economical,  when  made  to  absorb 
fertilizing  liquids  which  would  otherwise  be  wasted — or 
to  decompose  inert  vegetable  matter,  as  peat-earth,  &c. 

30.  Lime,  gypsum,  marl,  and  ashes  are  powerful  aux- 
iliaries, when  applied  to  proper  soils,  or  suitable  crops. 
Observation  and  experience  will  be  the  best  guides  in  their 
application.  They  should  all  be  applied  to  the  surface, 
or  but  superficially  covered. 

31.  All  vegetable  and  animal  matters  constitute  the 
food  of  plants,  when  they  are  rendered  soluble,  or  capable 
of  being  dissolved  in  the  water  of  the  soil. 

32.  Bone-dust,  horn-shavings,  poudrette,  woollen  rags, 
urine,  and  animal  carbon,  or  burnt  bones,  are  concentrated 
manures,  and  should  be  used  sparingly  and  with  great 
care,  upon  or  near  the  surface  of  the  soil.  Pigeons'  and 
hens'  dung  partake  much  of  the  character  of  the  prece- 
ding, and  require  precaution  in  their  use.  We  think  the 
best  mode  of  applying  the  two  first  named,  is  to  mix  ashes 


204  ON  THE   IMPROVEMENT 

with  them,  or  long  manure,  just  before  they  are  put  upon 
the  soil,  whereby  they  are  brought  speedily  into  a  state 
of  fermentation  and  decomposition. 

33.  The  best  guards  against  drought,  are  keeping  the 
soil  deep,  rich,  clean,  and  mellow  on  the  surface. 

34.  The  more  cattle  that  are  well  kept  upon  a  farm, 
the  more  manure  ;  the  more  manure  there  is  applied,  the 
greater  the  product  and  the  profit,  and  the  greater  the 
means  of  sustaining  an  increased  stock  of  animals  upon  it. 
All  of  these  advantages  are  increased  when  root  crops  are 
made  to  enter  largely  into  the  system  of  culture. 


CHAPTER  XXL 

ON  THE   IMPROVEMENT  OF    GRASS   LANDS. 

Although  the  alternation  of  grass  and  grain  crops,  in 
connexion  with  the  rearing  of  cattle,  is  deemed  most  prof- 
itable, on  soils  and  in  situations  which  will  admit  of  this 
kind  of  husbandry,  yet  there  are  many  situations  in  which 
this  alternate  change  cannot  be  carried  into  effect  with- 
out manifest  prejudice  to  the  interests  of  the  cultivator. 
There  are  some  soils  so  natural  to  grass,  as  to  yield  an 
undiminished  product  for  many  years,  almost  without  la- 
bor or  expense.  There  are  others,  upon  the  banks  of 
streams,  which  periodically  overflow,  which  it  is  prudent 
to  keep  in  grass,  lest  the  soil  should  be  worn  away  by 
the  rapid  flow  of  waters.  Besides,  fertility  is  kept  up 
upon  these  last,  by  the  annual  deposit  of  enriching  materi- 
als. Others,  again,  are  too  precipitous,  or  too  strong,  to 
admit  of  arable  culture.  Nor  should  we  conceal  the  fact, 
that  it  is  still  a  controverted  point,  whether  rich,  stiff  clays 
are  not  most  profitable,  when  permanently  appropriated  to 
grass.  Whatever  causes  prevail,  the  fact  is  indisputable, 
that  a  considerable  portion  of  our  lands  is,  and  will  con- 
tinue to  remain,  in  meadow  and  pasture.  It  is  with  the 
view  to  aid  the  farmer  in  correcting  the  defects  which 
may  exist  in  such  grounds,  and  in  improving  and  keeping 


OF   GRASS   LANDS.  205 

them  in  condition,  that  we  offer  the  fohowing  suggestions. 
And,  first, 

§  1 .    Of  Pastures. 

The  evils  that  are  experienced  in  pasture  grounds,  are, 
the  gradual  disappearance  of  the  best  grasses  ;  the  growth 
of  mosses  and  weeds  in  their  stead  ;  and  the  prevalence 
of  coarse  herbage,  which  cattle  reject,  in  situations  where 
there  exists  a  superabundance  of  moisture.  Wherever 
there  are  stagnant  waters,  as  upon  flat  surfaces  that  abound 
in  springs,  or  which  have  a  superficial  soil  upon  a  tena- 
cious subsoil,  the  herbage  is  not  only  mainly  rejected  by 
the  stock,  but  the  pasture  is  unhealthy,  particularly  to 
sheep  ;  but  it  is  remarked,  that  if  the  water  is  in  continued 
motion,  as  is  generally  the  case  upon  the  dechvities  of 
hills  and  mountains,  ill  consequences  do  not  so  often  re- 
sult. 

To  remedy  the  evils  we  have  enumerated,  and  to  im- 
prove the  value  of  pasture  grounds,  one  or  more  of  the 
following  expedients  maybe  resorted  to,  viz.,  sowing  and 
harrowing  in  grass-seeds,  scarifying,  bushing,  draining, 
manuring,  top-dressing  with  marl,  lime,  or  ashes. 

Grass-seed  may  be  sown  either  in  September  or  April, 
followed  by  the  harrow,  and,  if  practicable,  by  the  roller. 
The  harrow  partially  extirpates  the  mosses,  breaks  and 
pulverizes  the  surface,  and  buries  the  seeds  ;  and  the  roller 
presses  the  earth  to  the  seeds,  and  smooths  the  surface. 
The  bush  harrow  is  to  be  preferred.  This  may  be  con- 
structed by  interweaving  some  strong,  but  phant  branches 
of  trees  through  the  open  squares  of  a  heavy  harrow,  which 
thus  forms  an  efficient  brush,  and  when  drawn  over  the 
ground  performs  its  duty  perfectly  during  a  short  distance  ; 
but  the  branches,  being  pressed  close,  and  worn  by  the 
motion,  soon  become  so  flat  as  not  to  have  the  effect  of 
spreading  the  earth  thrown  upon  the  surface  by  earth- 
worms, ground-mice,  or  ants.  It  is  therefore  recom- 
mended, in  '  British  Husbandry,'  as  a  better  mode,  to  fix 
the  branches  upright  in  a  frame,  placed  in  the  front  part 
of  the  carriage  of  the  roller  ;  by  which  means  they  can 
be  so  placed  as  to  sweep  the  ground  effectually,  and  when 
18  XV. 


206  O:^  THE    IMPROVEMENT 

worn,  can  be  moved  a  little  lower  down,  so  as  to  contin- 
ue the  work  with  regularity.  This  operation  also  com- 
pletely breaks  and  scatters  the  manure  dropped  on  the 
field  by  the  stock,  and  particularly  incorporates  it  with 
the  surface-mould. 

Scarifying  is  cutting  the  sod  and  loosening  the  surface. 
Concklin's  press-harrow  (fig.  34)  is  a  suitable  implement 
for  this  purpose.  We  also  subjoin  the  drawing  of  an 
implement  constructed  for  this  purpose,  which  we  take 
from  '  British  Husbandry,'  calculated  to  be  drawn  by  a  one 
or  two-horse  team. 

Fig.  40. 


This  implement  is  intended  to  cut  the  sod  perpendicu- 
larly so  far  down  as  to  sever  the  roots  of  the  grass,  which 
occasions  it  to  throw  out  fresh  roots.  It  slices  the  sod, 
without  tearing  it,  and  should  be  constructed  with  a  num- 
ber of  very  sheurp  coulters,  fixed  into  a  cross-beam  at  such 
distances  as  may  be  thought  advisable,  from  six  inches  to 
a  foot,  and  of  a  width  according  to  the  strength  intended 
to  be  employed  in  drawing  it.  The  blades  should  be 
occasionally  whetted  to  preserve  their  edge,  and  the  im- 
plement should  be  used  when  the  ground  is  in  a  moderate 
state  of  moisture,  and  the  grass  short.  If  the  land  is 
poor,  or  moss-bound,  it  may  be  passed  crosswise  also. 
It  is  best  adapted  to  moist  clays,  which  do  not  contain 
stones  or  gravel.  It  is  advantageously  used  to  precede 
the  sowing  of  grass-seeds.  The  foot-wheel  is  to  regulate 
the  depth  of  the  work. 

Draining  improves  the  quality  of  the  herbage,  and 
marling,  liming,  or  ashing  increases  the  quantity.  It  is 
remarked,  that  animal  dung,  when  dropped   on  coarse 


OF  GRASS  LANDS.  207 

pastures,  produces  little  or  no  benefit ;  but  when  calcare- 
ous matters  have  been  laid  upon  the  surface,  the  finer 
grasses  soon  take  possession  of  it. 

Bushing,  that  is,  drawing  over  the  ground  tops  or  heavy 
branches  of  trees,  tends  to  extirpate  moss,  loosens  the 
surface  to  atmospheric  influence,  and  covers  grass-seeds 
which  may  be  sown  previous  to  the  operation. 

Manures  are  seldom  applied  to  pastures,  especially  with 
us  ;  but,  applied  in  the  form  of  compost,  as  a  top-dressing, 
they  are  decidedly  serviceable.  Gypsum  and  spent  ashes 
may  be  apphed  with  undoubted  benefit  in  most  cases. 
Upland  pastures  have  been  greatly  improved  in  Scotland, 
according  to  Sinclair,  by  drawing  surface-drains  diago- 
nally across  the  face  of  the  hills.  The  herbage  is  ren- 
dered more  palatable  and  wholesome,  and  the  waters  are 
prevented  from  accumulating  so  as  to  cut  gullies  and 
chasms  in  the  hill-sides. 

It  need  hardly  be  added,  that  bushes,  thistles,  and  other 
perennial  weeds  obstruct  the  growth  of  grass,  and  that  they 
ought  to  be  carefully  extirpated  ;  and  that  surface  stones 
diminish  the  herbage  in  proportion  to  the  extent  of  surface 
which  they  occupy.  These,  then,  should  be  converted 
into  walls,  one  of  the  most  economical  fences,  if  well 
laid,  because  the  most  permanent,  that  can  be  constructed. 
The  weeds  that  infest  pasture  grounds  are  mostly  bien- 
nials or  perennials.  If  these  are  cut  two  or  three  times 
in  a  season,  at  the  surface  of  the  ground,  they  will  die. 
Leaves  are  as  essential  to  vegetable,  as  lungs  are  to  ani- 
mal life.  Divested  of  these  elaborating  organs,  the  vitali- 
ty of  the  vegetable  is  soon  destroyed. 

Our  pasture  grounds  are  generally  left  to  take  care  of 
themselves  ;  but  there  is  no  doubt  that  expense  bestowed 
upon  their  improvement,  in  some  of  the  modes  above 
suggested,  would  be  profitably  laid  out.  Their  value 
depends  upon  the  quality  and  quantity  of  the  herbage 
which  they  afford.  The  quality  is  in  a  great  measure 
determined  by  the  exemption  of  the  soil  from  stagnant 
waters,  the  quantity  by  the  richness  of  the  soil,  and  its 
exemption  from  moss,  bushes,  weeds,  stones,  and  other 
for  if  these  are  eradicated  or  re- 


208  ON   THE   IMPROVEMENT 

moved,  it  is  presiimsd  the  nutritious  grasses  will  occupy 
their  places. 

§2.    Of  Meadows. 

The  crop  being  here  annually  carried  off,  it  becomes 
a  matter  of  necessity,  if  the  field  is  to  be  kept  permanent- 
ly in  grass,  to  apply  manure  occasionally,  if  we  would 
prevent  a  diminution  of  product.  It  is  affirmed,  that  a 
perfectly  thick  bottom  cannot  be  maintained  on  perma- 
nent meadows,  in  England,  unless  it  is  manured  every 
second  year.  Gypsum  will  effect  much  here,  upon  dry 
soils,  though  there  its  effects  are  equivocal ;  but  gypsum 
alone  will  not  suffice  here.  The  average  product  upon 
our  old  grass  lands  will  hardly  exceed  a  ton  and  a  half 
an  acre.  With  a  biennial  or  triennial  top-dressing  of 
dung  or  compost,  where  the  sod  is  in  good  condition,  it 
is  believed  the  average  would  be  double. 

Meadows  are  subject  to  all  the  evils  that  are  experi- 
enced in  pastures,  from  mosses,  wetness,  and  the  dimi- 
nution of  the  finer  grasses,  besides  the  greater  exhaustion 
of  fertility  consequent  upon  carrying  off  the  annual 
growth  ;  and  the  same  measures  are  best  adapted  to  reno- 
vate them.  Meadows  are  generally  depastured  after  the 
hay  has  been  taken  off,  and  the  rowen  partially  grown. 
"  After  the  cattle  have  been  removed,"  says  an  English 
writer,  "  the  land  is  bush-harrowed  and  rolled.^''  It  has 
been  stated,  though  some  question  the  fairness  of  the  ex- 
periment, that  the  operation  of  heavy  rolling  has  been 
found  to  add  six  or  seven  hundred  weight  of  hay  per  acre 
to  the  produce  of  the  crop.* 

The  efiect  of  pasturing  meadows  in  the  spring,  upon 
the  coming  grass  crop,  has  been  a  matter  upon  which 
farmers  have  difTered — though  all  agree  that  heavy  cattle 
should  not  be  kept  on  so  late  in  autumn,  or  put  on  so 
early  in  spring,  as  to  injure  the  sole  of  the  sod,  by  poach- 
ing it  when  in  a  wet  state.  Mr.  Sinclair  has  stated,  that 
a  given  space  of  the  same  quality  of  grass  having  been 
cut  towards  the  end  of  March,  and  another  space  of 
equal  size  left  uncut  until  the  last  week  in  April,  the  pro- 

*  Derbyshire  Report,  vol.  ii.  p.  88. 


OF   GRASS   LANDS.  209 

duce  of  each  having  afterwards  been  taken  at  three  dif- 
ferent cuttings,  that  of  the  space  last  cut  exceeded  the 
former  in  the  proportion  of  three  to  two  ;  and  in  one  in- 
stance, during  a  dry  summer,  the  last-cropped  space  ex- 
ceeded the  other  as  nearly  two  to  one.*  It  is  generally 
conceded,  that  it  is  better  to  feed  oft  rowen,  than  to  cut 
it  as  a  second  crop. 

But  when  grass  grounds  can  be  alternated  with  arable 
crops,  and  where  they  are  not  periodically  overflowed,  or 
triennially  dressed  with  compost  or  manure,  we  are  de- 
cidedly of  opinion  that  they  should  be  subjected  to  the 
alternating  system.  A  field  well  laid  down  in  seeds,  will 
give  more  grass  the  two  first  seasons,  or  in  the  three  sea- 
sons following,  than  it  will  in  the  four  seasons  following 
these,  unless  it  is  overflowed,  manured,  or  top-dressed. 
Besides,  the  grass  ley,  if  turned  under,  greatly  enriches  the 
soil  for  a  tillage  crop  ; — which,  by  its  ameliorating  tenden- 
cy, in  pulverizing,  opening  it  to  atmospheric  influence, 
and  exposing  a  new  surface,  fits  the  soil  again  for  the  re- 
turn of  the  grasses.  But  the  mere  alternation  of  crops 
tends  to  preserve  the  fertility  of  the  soil. 
'  A  great  objection  to  the  alternating  system  on  clay 
grounds  is,  that  it  is  difficult  to  make  the  grass-seeds  take, 
the  spring  and  autumn  being  generally  too  w^et  to  obtain 
so  complete  a  pulverization  of  the  soil  as  will  fit  it  for  the 
reception  of  grass-seeds, — and  of  course,  if  sown  then, 
they  do  not  germinate  and  grow.  Judge  Van  Bergen,  of 
Greene  County,  New"  York,  has  adopted  a  practice  which 
obviates  these  objections.  He  sows  his  grass-seeds  with 
buckwheat,  at  midsummer,  when  the  ground  can  be  well 
worked.  We  have  seen  his  fields,  a  stiff  clay,  of  one, 
two,  and  three  years'  seeding,  as  well  set  with  grass  as 
we  have  seen  on  the  most  favored  soils  ;  and,  compared 
with  adjoining  meadows  which  had  not  been  broken  up, 
the  crop  was  at  least  double. 

Where  old  grass-grounds  are  to  be  broken  up,  other 
than  for  a  summer  fallow,  the  first  ploughing  should  be  in 
autumn,  in  order  that  the  vegetable  matters  of  the  sod  may 

*  Wobum  Grasses,  p.  389. 

18* 


210    ON  THE  IMPROVEMENT  OF  GRASS  LANDS. 

undergo  a  partial  decomposition  in  time  to  meet  the  wants 
of  the  spring  crop,  and  that  the  soil  may  be  exposed  to 
the  ameliorating  influence  of  the  winter  frosts. 

Paring  and  burning,  upon  clay  soils,  would  be  of 
manifest  advantage,  not  only  in  converting  the  sod  speedi- 
ly into  soluble  matters,  but  in  improving  the  condition  of 
the  soil  itself.  We  long  entertained  a  prejudice  against 
this  mode  of  improvement,  on  the  ground  that  it  de- 
stroyed much  of  the  food  of  plants  ;  but  we  have  been 
induced,  in  a  measure,  to  change  our  opinion,  from  a 
conviction,  that  the  food  of  plants  is  not  annihilated,  but 
rather  concentrated,  changed  in  its  form,  and  rendered 
more  available  to  the  crop.  This  is  seen  in  burning  new^ 
fallows.  Paring  and  burning  produce  a  further  benefit 
by  destroying  most  of  the  seeds  and  roots  of  noxious  or 
useless  plants. 

"  The  objections  to  the  division  of  a  farm,"  says  Sir 
.John  Sinclair,  "one  half  into  permanent  grass ^  and  the 
other  half  into  permanent  tillage,  are  not  to  be  surmount- 
ed. The  arable  is  deteriorated  by  the  abstraction  of 
the  manure  it  produced,  if  applied  to  enrich  the  grass  ; 
while  the  greater  part  of  the  manure  thus  employed  is* 
wasted  ;  for  spreading  putrescent  substances  upon  the 
surface  of  a  field,  is  to  manure,  not  the  soil,  but  the  at- 
mosphere ;  and  is  justly  condemned  as  the  most  injurious 
plan  that  can  be  devised  in  an  arable  district.  The  mis- 
erable crops  of  corn  produced  where  this  system  prevails 
sufficiently  prove  its  mischievous  consequences.  So  in- 
jurious is  this  mode  of  management,  that,  in  the  opinion 
of  the  most  intelligent  farmers,  the  landlord  loses  one 
fourth  of  the  rent  he  might  otherwise  have  got,  from  every 
acre  thus  debarred  from  cultivation,  while  the  public 
loses  3f  bushels  of  grain  for  every  stone  (14  lbs.)  of 
beef  or  mutton  thereby  obtained." 

The  complaint  of  the  inferiority  of  the  new  over  the 
old  pasture  herbage,  originates,  says  Sinclair,  either  from 
the  improper  choice  of  seeds,  or  from  giving  them  in  too 
small  quantities  ;  and  he  quotes  the  example  of  an  emi- 
nent farmer,  upon  a  clay  farm,  who  stocked  heavy  with 
grass-seeds,  and  who  always  secured  a  thick  coat  of  her- 


CULTIVATION   OF   GRASSES.  211 

bage  the  first  year,  which  differed  from  old  pasture  only 
in  being  more  luxuriant.  There  can  be  but  httle  doubt, 
that  grasses  will  grow  more  luxuriantly  in  a  soil  which  has 
been  recently  meliorated  by  the  plough  and  harrow,  than 
in  one  which  has  remained  undisturbed  for  years.  The 
great  difficulty  is  in  getting  the  ground  into  proper  condition 
to  receive  the  seeds,  and  in  getting  them  to  begin  to  grow. 


CHAPTER  XXII. 

ON  THE  CULTIVATION  OF  GRASSES. 

On  the  judicious  selection  and  proper  cultivation  of 
grasses,  materially  depend  the  profits  of  the  farmer. 
These  constitute,  directly,  the  principal  food  of  his  farm- 
stock  ;  and,  indirectly,  the  food  of  his  crops.  If  his 
grasses  are  abundant  and  nutritious,  a  greater  number  of 
domestic  animals  may  be  maintained,  and  the  greater  will 
be  the  returns  they  will  make  to  the  soil,  in  manure.  A 
well-set  sward  is  far  more  enriching  to  the  soil,  because 
it  contains  much  more  organic  or  vegetable  matter,  the 
food  of  plants,  when  ploughed  under,  than  one  that  is  thin 
and  meager.  A  judicious  selection  comprises  those  kinds 
which  are  naturally  best  adapted  to  the  soil.  A  proper 
cultivation  consists  in  keeping  them  free  from  stagnant 
water,  noxious  weeds,  and,  if  to  remain  long  in  meadow, 
in  giving  them  a  triennial  top-dressing  of  manure  or  com- 
post. One  acre  of  good  grass  will  cut  three  tons  of  hay, 
or  keep  a  cow,  or,  if  in  lucerne,  will  soil  half  a  dozen 
cows  five  months  in  a  year.  Four  acres  of  lean,  poor 
grass  will  cut  little  more,  if  any,  than  three  tons  of  hay, 
and  will  barely  suffice  to  keep  a  cow.  There  is  as  much 
difference  between  good  and  bad  grass  lands,  in  regard  to 
profit,  as  there  is  between  a  good  and  a  bad  field  of  corn 
or  wheat. 

The  common  practice  in  this  branch  of  husbandry  has 
hitherto  been  wretchedly  bad.  Generally,  and  until  late- 
ly, we  have  either  altogether  omitted  to  sow  grass-seeds, 


212  CULTIVATION  OF  GRASSES. 

or  have  sown  them  so  sparingly,  or  of  so  few  kinds,  that 
we  have  in  a  great  measure  lost  much  of  the  profit  which 
they  are  calculated  to  afford.  Timothy  and  red  clover 
have  heen  almost  the  only  seeds  sown  ;  and  unless  the 
soil  has  been  prolific  in  indigenous  kinds,  our  pastures 
have  been  thin,  and  our  meadows  light.  There  is  one 
fact  in  regard  to  grasses  which  is  not  sufficiently  known 
and  appreciated.  Different  species  subsist  upon  different 
specific  properties  of  the  soil,  and  draw  their  food  from 
different  strata,  the  fibrous-rooted  gathering  sustenance 
from  the  upper,  and  the  tap-rooted  from  the  lower  stra- 
tum. And  It  has  been  found,  that  although  a  superficial 
square  foot  of  turf  will  only  support  a  given  number  of 
plants  of  one  species,  it  will  nevertheless  support  double 
or  treble  that  number  of  plants  comprising  several  spe- 
cies. 

We  mean,  by  cultivated  grasses,  those  of  which  the 
seeds  are  sown  by  the  husbandman,  whether  indigenous, 
or  natural  to  the  soil,  or  exotic.  And  in  discussing  the 
subject,  we  shall  consider  them  under  two  heads,  and 
shall  draw  liberally  for  facts  and  illustrations  from  Lou- 
don and  other  approved  agricultural  writers.  The  divis- 
ions we  propose. are, — 

1.  Herbage  plants,  or  those  particularly  fitted  for  al- 
ternate husbandry. 

2.  Cultivated  grasses,  or  those  best  adapted  for  mead- 
ow and  pasture. 

§  1 .   Herbage  Plants. 

Under  this  head,  Loudon  has  embraced  the  clovers, 
lucerne,  sainfoin,  birdsfoot  trefoil,  parsley,  burnet,  rib- 
wort, plantain,  broom,  wall-flower,  yarrow,  &c.  The 
six  last  are  never  cultivated  among  us  as  herbage  or  field 
plants  ;  the  sainfoin,  which  is  peculiarly  adapted  to 
chalk  soils,  has  never  been  successfully  cultivated  among 
us,  and  the  birdsfoot  trefoil  but  partially.  We  shall 
therefore  confine  our  remarks,  in  this  department,  to  the 
clovers  and  lucerne. 

The  cultivation  of  clovers  and  lucerne  exclusively  for 
live  slock,  is   comparatively  a  modern  improvement  in 


CULTIVATION  OF   GRASSES.  213 

husbandly.  These  plants  were  not  introduced  into 
British  husbandry  until  the  sixteenth  century.  Their 
introduction  among  us,  on  any  thing  hke  a  general  scale, 
was  far  more  recent.  Indeed,  lucerne  has  hardly  yet  ob- 
tained a  footing  among  us  ;  and  a  great  many  of  our  far- 
mers are  yet  strangers  to  the  great  advantages  which  the 
cultivation  of  the  clovers  imparts  to  farming  operations. 

In  Flanders,  where  husbandry  underwent  its  earliest 
improvements  after  the  feudal  age,  and  where  it  is  found 
now  most  to  excel,  the  cultivation  of  clovers  is  deemed 
indispensable  to  profitable  farming.  It  forms  a  part  of 
the  course  in  every  system  of  rotation  upon  all  soils  that 
will  grow  it.  Upon  their  cultivation,  says  RadclifFe, 
hinges  apparently  the  whole  of  the  farmer's  prosperity. 
"  Without  clover,  no  man  in  Flanders  would  pretend  to 
call  himself  a  farmer."  Clover  is  used  there  as  it  should 
be  used  here — both  to  feed  the  animal  and  to  enrich  the 
soil.  In  Great  Britain,  clovers  are  considered  alike  in- 
dispensable to  good  farming,  particularly  upon  sandy  and 
other  light  lands.  Their  general  introduction  into  Amer- 
ican husbandry  promises  higher  advantages  than  have 
been  derived  from  them  in  Europe,  inasmuch  as  gypsum, 
which  exerts  a  magic  influence  in  their  growth,  produces 
a  more  uniformly  beneficial  effect  in  the  United  States 
than  it  does  in  Europe,  excepting  perhaps  in  the  interior 
of  Germany.  Those  districts  in  our  country  in  which 
clover  and  plaster  were  first  introduced,  as  some  of  the 
counties  in  the  valley  of  the  Hudson,  and  on  the  eastern 
border  of  Pennsylvania,  have  unquestionably  made  the 
most  rapid  strides  in  agricultural  improvement,  and  are 
now  confessedly,  and  by  far,  the  best-cultivated  districts 
of  our  country.  Those  who  have  followed  their  exam- 
ple, in  whatever  part  of  the  country  they  have  been  loca- 
ted, are  realizing  a  rich  reward  for  their  intelligence  and 
enterprise.  Several  counties  might  be  named,  which 
have  doubled  their  agricultural  products,  and  the  profits 
of  their  agricultural  labor,  since  the  introduction  of  clo- 
vers and  gypsum.  No  thorough-going  farmer,  we  believe, 
who  has  given  thsm  a  fair  experiment,  has  voluntarily 
given  them  up. 


214  CULTIVATION  OF  GRASSES. 

The  species  of  clover  in  cultivation  are — 

1.  The  common  red  clover,  (THfolium  pratense,) 
a  biennial,  and  sometimes,  if  not  permitted  to  seed,  a  tri- 
ennial, known  from  the  other  species  by  its  broad  leaves, 
luxuriant  growth,  and  reddish  purple  flowers. 

2.  The  white,  or  creeping,  or  Dutch  clover,  ( T.  re- 
pens,)  is  a  perennial  plant,  known  by  its  creeping  stems 
and  white  flowers  ;  and  springing  up,  it  would  seem,  al- 
most spontaneously,  in  most  of  our  pastures  and  meadows. 

3.  The  yellow  clover,  hop-trefoil,  or  shamrock  clo- 
ver, (T.  procumbens,)  a  biennial,  known  by  its  procum- 
bent shoots,  yellow  flowers,  and  black  seeds.  This 
species  is  not  cultivated  among  us,  though  it  seems  to 
abound  in  the  northern  and  middle  States. 

4.  The  cow-grass,  meadow  clover,  or  marl-grass,  (T. 
medium  of  Linnaeus,  and  resembling,  says  Beck,  the  T. 
Pennsylvanicum  of  Wild,)  is  a  perennial,  resembling  the 
red  clover,  but  of  a  paler  hue,  dwarfer  habit,  with  pale  red 
or  whitish  flowers,  and  long  roots,  very  sw^eet  to  the 
taste.  Whether  what  we  term  Southern  Clover  is  the 
T.  medium,  or  T.  Pennsylvanicum,  or  a  variety  of  the 
T.  pratense,  we  shall  leave  It  to  botanists  to  settle,  bare- 
ly remarking,  that  its  time  of  flowering  is  usually  ten  to 
fourteen  days  earlier  than  that  of  the  northern  red  clover. 

5.  Scarlet  clover,  ( T.  incarnatum,)  an  annual,  a  na- 
tive of  Italy,  but  little  known  or  cultivated  either  in  the 
United  States  or  Great  Britain.  We  have  sown  it 
twice  on  a  limited  scale  ;  and  although  It  promised  a 
handsome  product.  It  did  not  attain  Its  growth  in  time  for 
a  forage  crop,  or  to  mature  its  seeds. 

Of  the  species  we  have  named,  the  pratense,  repens, 
and  medium,  if  the  latter  be  a  distinct  species,  are  the 
only  ones  which  are,  or  are  likely  to  be,  cultivated  among 
us.  The  first  yields  the  heaviest  burden,  but  Is  coarser, 
and  later  In  maturing  than  the  last  named  ;  and  the  lat- 
ter has  consequently  one  manifest  advantage  over  the 
former, — it  will  give  two  crops  In  a  season,  one  to  the 
scythe,  and  one  for  seed.  It  Is  to  be  remarked,  that  the 
first  growth  or  crop  of  clover  seldom  produces  much  seed, 
on  account  of  the  heat  of  our  mid-summer.     If  the  first 


CULTIVATION  OF  GRASSES.  215 

crop  of  the  large  clover  is  not  cut  until  it  is  in  full  blossom, 
the  season  hardly  suffices  for  a  second  crop  to  mature  its 
seed.  The  southern  clover  may  be  fed  till  the  20th  June, 
or  the  first  crop  taken  by  the  25th  or  28th,  and  the  sec- 
ond or  seed  crop  will  come  to  perfect  maturity,  in  ordi- 
nary seasons,  before  the  autumnal  frosts.  The  white 
clover  is  not  sown  to  the  extent  it  deserves  to  be.  Being 
a  perennial  plant,  and  grateful  to  all  kinds  of  farm-stock, 
its  continuance  in  meadow  and  pasture  grounds  renders 
it  highly  valuable,  both  for  hay  and  grazing.  It  does  not 
seem  to  intrude  upon  the  taller  grasses,  but  will  occupy 
every  vacant  space,  and  add  essentially  to  the  value  of 
the  crop.  It  is  universally  valued  and  admired  ;  then 
why  not  sow  it  more  generally  ? 

The  soil  best  adapted  to  the  growth  of  red  clover,  ( T. 
pratense  and  T.  medium^)  to  which  we  shall  hereafter  con- 
fine our  remarks,  is  a  deep,  sandy  loam,  or  other  soils 
which  will  admit  freely  the  long  tap-roots  to  extend  down- 
wards ;  but  they  will  grow  in  any  soil,  provided  it  be  dry. 
Calcareous  soils  are  also  peculiarly  congenial  to  clover  ; 
and  the  application  of  gypsum  upon  soils  sensitive  to  its 
influence,  will  call  into  action  the  seeds,  which  before 
would  seem  to  have  lain  dormant,  for  want  of  this  stimu- 
lus, or  specific  food. 

The  usual  time  of  sowing  clover-seed  is  in  the  spring, 
if  with  a  spring  crop,  before  the  last  harrowing  ;  or  upon 
winter  grain  in  March  or  April,  when  the  field  will  bear 
cattle  without  poaching  the  ground,  followed  by  a  light 
harrow  or  roller.  Let  no  one  fear  to  injure  his  grain  by 
harrowing  it  in  the  spring.  The  harrow  or  roller  eftects 
a  material  benefit,  by  breaking  the  crust  which  is  gener- 
ally perceptible  on  the  appearance  of  dry  weather,  in  the 
spring,  closing  the  innumerable  cracks  which  are  caused 
by  the  contraction  of  the  soil,  and  in  pressing  down,  and 
even  covering  the  crowns  of  the  plants.  Harrowing  win- 
ter grain  in  the  spring  has  long  been  a  general  practice  in 
the  north  of  Germany,  and  the  practice  would  not  have 
been  persisted  in  had  it  not  been  found  beneficial.  Clo- 
ver-seeds are  sometimes  sown  with  the  autumn  crop,  in 
September  or  October  ;  though  this  practice  is  not  to  be 


216  CULTIVATION  OF  GRASSES. 

approved  of,  as  the  plants  do  not  ordinarily  obtain  suffi- 
cient strength  to  withstand  the  severity  of  our  northern 
winters.  A  better  practice  would  be,  we  think,  to  sow 
with  buckwheat  in  July.  The  plants  would  then  have 
time  to  establish  themselves  well  in  the  soil.  We,  how- 
ever, think  that  spring  sowing  is  to  be  preferred  in  the 
northern  States. 

The  quantity  of  seed  to  be  sown  on  an  acre,  will  de- 
pend upon  the  quality  of  the  soil,  the  purpose  to  which 
the  clover  is  to  be  applied,  and  the  quantity  of  other  grass- 
seeds  sown  with  it.  As  much  of  the  seed  sown  upon 
stiff  clays,  or  upon  grounds  not  well  pulverized,  will  not 
vegetate,  for  want  of  a  continued  supply  of  moisture,  al- 
lowance should  be  made  for  the  failure  ;  yet,  upon  these, 
and  wet  grounds,  the  main  dependance,  after  the  first 
year,  is  upon  timothy  or  other  grasses  sown  with  the  clo- 
ver. If  the  ground  is  intended  for  pasture,  the  varieties 
of  seeds  should  be  as  extensive  as  possible,  as  the  object 
is  to  obtain  an  abundance  of  food  at  all  seasons,  and  to 
render  the  pasture  perennial.  The  usual  quantity  of  seed 
sown  on  the  acre  in  the  United  States,  is  about  ten 
pounds  ;  in  Great  Britain  it  is  often  increased  to  fourteen 
pounds  ;  while  in  Flanders  six  pounds  is  the  medium 
quantity,  though  in  the  latter  country  the  land  is  always 
in  the  best  condition  to  receive  it.  The  more  plants  that 
can  be  made  to  grow,  the  finer  will  be  the  herbage,  and 
the  greater  the  amount  of  vegetable  matter  afforded  by 
the  ley  to  the  crop  which  is  to  follow. 

The  after-culture  of  clover  consists  in  freeing  the  sur- 
face of  stones  and  sticks,  the  soil  from  docks  and  thistles, 
and  in  applying  an  annual  top-dressing  of  gypsum,  or, 
when  this  is  inoperative,  of  lime  or  ashes.  The  top- 
dressing  is  best  applied  in  the  spring,  before  the  clover 
begins  to  grow.  Upon  lands  annually  dressed  with  plas- 
ter, a  bushel  is  considered  a  sufficient  dressing  for  an 
acre,  though  greater  quantities  are  often  apphed  with  ad- 
vantage. 

The  making  clover  into  hay  is  a  process  different  from 
that  of  making  hay  from  natural  grasses.  All  herbage 
plants  abound  most  in  nutriment,  and  should  be  cut  be- 


CULTIVATION  OF   GRASSES.  217 

fore  the  seeds  are  formed,  and  indeed  before  fully  in  blos- 
som, that  the  ftill  juice  and  nourishment  of  the  plant  may 
be  retained  in  the  hay.  A  crop  of  clover,  when  cut  in 
the  early  part  of  the  season,  may  be  ten  per  cent,  lighter 
than  when  it  is  fully  ripe  ;  but  the  loss  is  amply  counter- 
balanced, by  obtaining  an  earlier,  a  more  valuable,  and 
more  nutritious  article  ;  while  the  next  crop  will  be  pro- 
portionably  more  heavy.  The  hay  from  old  herbage 
will  carry  on  stock,  but  it  is  only  hay  from  young  herbage 
that  will  fatten  them.  When  the  stems  of  clover  become 
hard  and  sapless,  by  being  allowed  to  bring  their  seeds 
towards  maturity,  they  are  of  little  more  value  as  proven- 
der than  an  equal  quantity  of  the  finer  sort  of  straw. 

The  mode  of  making  clover  hay,  as  practised  by  the 
best  farmers,  is  as  follows  :  The  clover  is  cut  close  to 
tlie  ground,  in  as  uniform  and  perfect  a  manner  as  it  is 
possible  to  accomphsh,  by  the  scythe  kept  constantly 
sharp.  That  part  of  the  stem  left  by  the  scythe  is  not 
only  lost,  but  the  after-growth  is  neither  so  vigorous  nor 
so  weighty  as  when  the  first  cutting  is  taken  as  low  as 
possible. 

As  soon  as  the  grass  is  partially  wilted,  let  the  swath 
be  gently  turned  over,  but  not  spread  or  scattered.  This 
may  be  done  with  forks  or  rakes.  If  the  weather  is  fair, 
and  the  clover  cut  in  the  morning,  the  swaths  may  be 
turned  after  dinner  ;  and  if  mown  after  noon  they  may 
be  turned  before  evening  ;  at  which  time  those  turned 
after  dinner  may  be  put  into  grasscocks.  This  last  op- 
eration should  be  performed  with  care,  and  in  this  man- 
ner : — Three  swaths  are  appropriated  to  a  row  of  cocks. 
The  laborer  gathers  a  good  forkfull,  and  deposits  it  on 
the  centre  swath,  if  the  ground  is  dry,  if  not,  in  one  of 
the  intervals,  putting  it  down  gently,  so  that  the  cock  may 
present  a  small  base  ;  he  then  continues  to  gather  and 
deposit  in  the  same  way  until  the  cock  is  brought  to  a 
point,  at  the  height  of  four  to  five  feet,  according  to  the 
dryness  of  the  clover, — the  dryer  this  is,  the  higher  the 
cock  may  be  made.  When  completed,  the  grasscock 
is  two  to  three  feet  broad  at  the  ground,  tapering  to  the 
apex,  and  the  projecting  ends  of  the  herbage  drooping,  so 
19  XV. 


218  CULTIVATION  OF  GRASSES. 

as  to  carry  off  the  rain  which  may  fall.  The  points  to 
be  regarded  are,  to  cock  before  the  leaves  begin  to  crum- 
ble, not  to  suffer  the  dew  to  fall  upon  the  dried  surface 
of  the  swath,  and  to  build  the  cocks  so  as  completely  to 
shed  rain,  should  the  weather  be  bad.  These  grasscocks 
may  stand  to  advantage  36  or  48  hours,  without  any  pre- 
judice, and  should  not  be  opened  until  there  is  a  fair  pros- 
pect of  obtaining  a  few  hours  of  good  weather  to  com- 
plete the  curing  process.  When  this  is  the  case,  open 
the  cocks  as  soon  as  the  dew  is  off,  spread  them  partially, 
from  four  to  six  inches  thick.  If  the  day  is  good,  the 
spread  clover  may  be  turned  over  between  twelve  and 
two,  and  in  an  hour  or  two  afterwards  be  gathered  for  the 
barn.  By  this  process  of  curing,  the  leaves  are  all  pre- 
served, injury  from  dew  and  rain  is  in  a  great  measure 
avoided,  the  stalks  are  better  dried,  and  the  appearance 
and  value  of  the  forage  are  retained  in  their  highest  perfec- 
tion. If  rain  is  apprehended,  after  the  grasscocks  have 
stood  a  night,  these  may  be  doubled  by  putting  one  upon 
the  top  of  another,  and  dressing  with  a  rake.  An  intense 
sun  is  almost  as  prejudicial  to  clover  as  rain  ;  and  there- 
fore it  should  not  be  shaken  out,  spread,  or  exposed  often- 
er  than  is  necessary  for  its  preservation.  The  more  the 
swath  is  kept  unbroken,  the  more  green  and  fragrant  will 
be  the  hay. 

The  advantage  of  curing  clover  in  the  cock  is  this, 
that  when  cured  by  being  spread,  the  leaves  and  blos- 
soms are  dry  long  before  the  stems  are  cured,  or  suffi- 
ciently dry  ;  so  that  either  the  stems  must  be  housed  be- 
fore they  are  properly  cured,  or,  if  made  sufficiently  dry 
by  long  exposure  to  the  sun,  the  leaves  and  blossoms 
become  too  dry,  crumble,  and  are  lost.  If  in  cock,  all 
parts  of  the  plant  dry  alike,  the  moisture  in  the  mass  is 
equalised,  and  when  gathered  to  the  barn,  there  will 
scarcely  be  a  leaf  lost,  while  the  stalks  will  be  amply 
cured.  A  shght  fermentation  often  takes  place  in  the 
cocks,  which,  instead  of  doing  any  injury,  is  a  benefit,  as 
it  prevents  the  hay  from  afterwards  heating  in  the  mow 
or  stack.  It  is  a  good  practice  to  sprinkle  salt  upon 
clover  hay,  when  deposited  in  the  barn,  especially  upon 


CULTIVATION  OF  GRASSES.  219 

the  first  loads  brought  in,  not  so  much  with  the  view  of 
preserving  the  hay,  as  of  seasoning  it,  and  rendering  it 
more  palatable  to  the  cattle. 

The  secret  of  making  good  hay,  says  Low,  is  to  pre- 
pare it  as  quickly  as  possible,  and  with  as  little  exposure 
to  the  weather,  and  as  little  waste  of  the  natural  juices,  as 
circumstances  will  allow.  When  we  are  enabled  to  do  this 
the  hay  will  be  sweet,  fragrant,  and  of  a  greenish  color. 

The  produce  of  clover,  on  the  best  soils,  is  from  two 
to  three  tons  per  acre.  The  difference  in  quality,  resulting 
from  the  mode  of  curing,  is  apparent  from  this  fact,  that 
well-cured  clover,  according  to  Loudon,  is  generally 
twenty  per  cent,  higher  in  the  London  market  than  mead- 
ow hay,  or  clover  and  rye-grass  mixed. 

As  we  have  before  remarked,  clover  will  not  perfect 
its  seed  in  the  early  part  of  the  season  ;  therefore  it  is 
necessary  to  take  off  the  first  growth,  either  as  a  hay 
crop,  or  by  feeding  it  off,  till  June,  and  to  depend  for 
the  seed  upon  those  heads  that  are  produced  in  autumn. 
The  product  in  seed  varies  from  two  to  five  bushels  an 
acre.  When  ripe,  the  heads  are  gathered,  with  or  with- 
out the  stems,  threshed,  and  the  seed  separated  from  the 
chaff  in  a  clover-seed  mill.  The  seed  forms  an  article 
of  substantial  profit  with  many  farmers,  and  amounts  often 
to  more  than  the  rest  of  the  crop.  Assuming  as  an  aver- 
age four  bushels  to  the  acre,  and  estimating  it  to  be  worth 
ten  dollars  a  bushel,  the  acreable  value  would  be  forty 
dollars.  The  expense  of  threshing  and  cleaning  is  com- 
paratively trifling.  The  stems  of  the  seed  crop,  if 
cured  in  the  manner  directed  for  clover  hay,  are  of  more 
value  as  fodder  than  straw,  and  constitute  excellent  litter 
for  the  stables  and  yards. 

When  we  take  into  consideration  the  value  of  the  first 
crop  for  forage,  and  of  the  second  crop  for  seed  and  lit- 
ter ;  and  consider,  that  while  clover  is  one  of  the  least 
exhausting  crops  to  the  soil,  it  returns  more  to  it  than 
almost  any  other  crop,  and  benefits  it  mechanically  by 
pulverizing  and  dividing  it,  by  its  tap-roots  ; — if  we  take 
these  several  matters  into  consideration,  together  with  the 
facts,  that  clover  is  admirably  adapted  to  light,  sandy 


220  CULTIVATION   OF   GRASSES. 

lands,  to  the  alternate  system  of  husbandry,  and  that  its 
growth  is  wonderfully  accelerated  by  gypsum — we  shall 
not  be  surprised  at  the  saying  of  the  Flemings,  that 
"  without  clover,  no  man  in  Flanders  would  pretend  to  call 
himself  a  farmer  ;"  nor  shall  we  be  surprised  at  the  uniform 
success  which  has  attended  its  culture  in  the  United  States. 

Lucerne — JMedicago  sativa,  L. 

Lucerne  is  a  deep-rooted  perennial  plant,  sending  up 
numerous  small  and  clover-like  shoots,  with  blue  or  vio- 
let spikes  of  flowers.  It  is  a  native  of  the  south  of  Eu- 
rope, is  extensively  cultivated  in  the  south  of  Spain,  Italy, 
France,  Persia,  and  Lima,  in  the  two  latter  being  cut 
all  the  year  round, — and  is  partially  cultivated  in  Great 
Britain  and  the  United  States.  With  us  it  is  often  called 
French  clover,  and  is  found  to  be  as  hardy  as  red  clover. 
It  was  extensively  cultivated  by  the  Romans,  and  com- 
mended by  Columella,  as  the  choicest  of  all  fodder. 
Three  quarters  of  an  acre  of  it,  he  thought  abundantly  suf- 
ficient to  feed  three  horses  during  the  whole  year. 

The  soil  for  lucerne  must  be  dry,  friable,  inclining  to 
sand,  and  with  a  subsoil  not  inferior  to  the  surface.  Un- 
less the  subsoil  be  good,  deep,  and  dry,  it  is  in  vain  to 
attempt  to  cultivate  lucerne.  A  friable,  deep,  sandy 
loam  is  excellent  for  it.     No  land  is  too  rich  for  it. 

The  preparation  of  the  soil  consists  in  deep  ploughing 
and  minute  pulverization.  Loudon  recommends  trenching 
for  it.  But  a  good  preparation  is  a  potato  crop,  heavily 
dressed  with  long  manure,  the  ground  ploughed  very  deep, 
and  the  manure  buried  at  the  bottom  of  the  furrow,  and 
the  crop  kept  perfectly  free  from  weeds. 

The  season  most  proper  for  sowing  in  the  northern  and 
eastern  States  is  about  the  1st  to  the  15th  of  May,  when 
the  ground  has  become  sufficiently  warmed  to  promote 
quick  germination. 

The  manner  of  sowing  lucerne  is  either  broadcast  or 
in  drills,  and  either  with  or  without  an  accompanying  crop. 
Broadcast,  with  a  very  thin  cast  of  winter  rye,  is  most 
generally  preferred  in  the  United  States  ;  though  drills, 
by  enabling  the  cultivator  to  keep  out  grasses  and  weeds, 


CULTIVATION  OF  GRASSES.  221 

promise  the  greatest  permanency  to  the  crop.  A  gen- 
tleman, who  has  sown  in  drills,  three  feet  apart,  and  cul- 
tivated alternate  rows  of  mangel  wurtzel  with  the  lucerne, 
speaks  in  high  commendation  of  the  practice.  Arthur 
Young  recommends  drilling  at  nine  inches. 

The  quantity  of  seed,  when  the  broadcast  method  is 
adopted,  is  from  fifteen  to  twenty  pounds  ;  in  the  United 
States,  sixteen  pounds  is  the  usual  quantity, — and  when 
drilled,  eight  to  twelve  pounds  suffices.  The  ground 
should  be  perfectly  pulverized,  the  seed  put  in  with  a  fine 
harrow,  and  the  operation  of  sowing  finished  with  the  roller. 

The  after  culture  of  lucerne,  sown  broadcast,  consists 
in  harrowing,  in  the  spring,  to  destroy  grass  and  weeds  ; 
rolling,  after  harrowing,  to  smooth  the  soil  for  the  scythe  ; 
and  such  occasional  top-dressings  with  gypsum,  ashes,  or 
rotted  manure,  as  the  plants  may  require,  or  the  conve- 
nience of  the  farm  best  afford.  The  harrowing  may  com- 
mence the  second  year,  and  the  weeds  collected  should 
always  be  carefully  removed.  In  succeeding  years,  two 
harrowings  may  be  applied,  one  in  spring  and  the  other  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  summer.  If  in  drills  the  crop  must 
be  kept  clean  by  the  hoe,  cultivator,  &c.  Liquid  manure 
from  the  cattle-yard  is  an  excellent  manure  for  this  crop. 

The  taking  of  lucerne,  by  mowing,  for  soiling  or  hay, 
or  by  tethering,  hurdling,  or  pasturing,  may  be  consid- 
ered the  same  as  for  clover.  Lucerne  frequently  attains 
a  sufficient  growth  for  the  scythe  from  the  10th  to  the 
20th  May  ;  and  in  soils  that  are  favorable  for  its  culture, 
it  will  be  in  a  state  of  readiness  for  cutting  a  second  time 
in  twenty  or  twenty-five  days,  being  capable  of  undergo- 
ing the  same  operation,  at  nearly  similar  intervals  of  time, 
during  the  whole  of  the  summer  season.  In  the  United 
States,  in  a  good  soil,  it  may  be  cut,  for  soiling,  four, 
and  sometimes  five  times  in  the  season. 

The  application  of  lucerne  is,  with  us,  generally  for  the 
purpose  of  soiling,  with  the  exception  sometimes  of  the 
last  cutting.  It  is  advantageously  fed  in  its  green  state  to 
horses,  cattle,  and  hogs  ;  but  as  a  dry  fodder,  it  is  also 
capable  of  affording  much  sustenance,  and  as  an  early 
food  for  ewes  and  lambs,  may  be  of  great  value  in  par- 
19* 


222  CULTIVATION  OF  GRASSES. 

ticular  cases.  All  agree  in  extolling  it  as  food  for  cows, 
whether  in  a  green  or  dried  state  ;  and  it  is  said  to  be 
much  superior  to  clover,  both  in  increasing  the  milk  and 
butter,  and  in  improving  their  flavor.  In  its  green  state, 
care  is  necessary  not  to  feed  too  much  at  a  time,  especially 
when  moist,  as  cattle  may  become  hoven  or  blown  with 
it.  It  is  a  good  precaution  to  cut  it  the  day  before  it  is 
used,  and  to  let  it  wilt  in  the  swath.  When  made  into 
hay,  lucerne  should  never  be  spread  from  the  swath,  but 
managed  as  directed  for  clover.  It  may  be  housed  before 
perfectly  dry,  if  it  is  alternated  in  the  mow  with  layers 
of  straw,  which  imbibe  the  superabundant  juices,  and 
thereby  become  grateful  and  nutritious  to  the  farm-stock, 
when  fed  with  the  lucerne. 

Soiling  is  a  term  applied  to  the  practice  of  cutting  her- 
bage crops  green,  for  feeding  or  fattening  live  stock.  On 
all  farms  under  correct  management,  a  part  of  this  crop  is 
cut  green  for  the  working  horses,  often  for  milch  cows,  even 
when  at  pasture  ;  and  in  some  instances,  both  for  growing 
and  fattening  cattle.  On  small  farms,  this  crop  is  of  immense 
advantage,  as  affording  a  ready  substitute  for  pasture. 

The  produce  of  lucerne,  cut  three  times  in  a  season, 
has  been  stated  from  three  to  five,  and  even  eight  tons 
per  acre.  In  soiling,  one  acre  is  sufficient  for  five  or  six 
cows  during  the  soiling  season.* 

*  In  the  first  volume  of  the  Transactions  of  the  Society  for  the  Pro- 
motion of  Agriculture,  Arts,  and  Manufactures,  we  find  a  "detailed  state- 
ment of  a  series  of  experiments  made  by  the  late  Chancellor  Livings- 
ton, in  1791  to  1794,  in  cultivating  lucerne,  most  of  w^hich  proved 
unsuccessful.  He  sowed  it  mixed  with  clover-seeds,  and  by  itself,  on 
a  variety  of  soils,  at  different  seasons,  and  with  oats,  wheat,  buck- 
wheat, barley,  and  turnips.  These  experiments  warrant  the  following 
conclusions  : — That  the  seeds  should  be  sown  on  a  dry,  rich,  deep  soil, 
in  May,  when  the  earth  is  sufticiently  warm  to  excite  a  quick  germina- 
tion and  growth  ;  that  from  16  to  20  lbs.  of  seed  should  be  sown  on 
an  acre,  and  the  ground  harrowed  and  rolled  ;  that  "  it  is  full  as  hardy 
as  clover,"  and  "better  braves  the  biting  frosts  of  spring,  and  keen 
autumnal  blasts,  than  clover,  or  any  cultivated  grass  of  this  climate  ;" 
and  that  the  profits  of  an  acre  may  be  estimated  from  lp20  to  $30  per 
annum.  The  following  is  Chancellor  Livingston's  account  of  the  ex- 
pense and  produce  of  the  third  year — this  experiment  being  made  on 
the  fourth  of  an  acre. 

"1st  April — manured  with  ten  loads  of  black  earth  from  a  swamp, 
or  at  the  rate  of  40  loads  to  the  acre. 


CULTIVATION  OF  GRASSES.  223 

One  of  our  farmers  has  kept  eight  cattle  (two  oxen 
and  six  cows)  upon  an  acre  of  lucerne,  during  the  season, 
with  a  range  of  three  or  four  acres  of  pasture.  Say,  how- 
ever, the  produce  is  equal  to  a  full  crop  of  red  clover  in 
value,  then,  yearly  for  nine  or  ten  years,  (its  ordinary 
duration  in  a  productive  state,)  at  an  annual  expense  of 
harrowing  and  rolling,  and  a  triennial  expense  of  top-dres- 
sing, it  will  be  of  sufficient  value  to  induce  farmers,  who 
have  suitable  soils,  to  lay  down  a  few  acres  of  this  crop 
near  their  homesteads. 

To  save  seed,  the  lucerne  may  be  treated  precisely  as 
red  clover,  i.  e.,  obtained  from  the  second  cutting,  or  even 
the  third,  the  crop  being  left  to  ripen  its  seed.  It  is 
easily  threshed,  the  grains  being  contained  in  small  pods, 
which  readily  separate  under  the  flail,  threshing-machine, 
or  clover-mill. 

§  2.    Cultivated  Grasses. 

"  The  forage,  hay,  and  pasture  grasses,"  says  Lou- 
don, "of  which  we  are  now  about  to  treat,  are  found 

"  It  was  very  luxuriant,  and  cut  twice  before  the  20th  June,  for 
plough-horses,  kept  in  the  stable — being,  when  they  began  to  cut  each 
time,  about  16  inches  high — the  average  height,  taking  the  first  and 
last  cutting,  each  time,  about  20  inches.  On  the  24th  of  July,  cut 
and  made  into  hay,  produced  1000  lbs.,  or  two  tons  to  the  acre.  On 
the  last  of  August  cut  a  fourth  time,  produced  600  lbs.,  or  2400  to  the 
acre.  The  fifth  crop  is  not  cut,  but  is  now,  the  first  of  October,  20 
inches  high,  and  very  promising  in  its  appearance.  If  we  have  no 
severe  frosts  before  the  middle  of  this  month,  it  will  produce  about 
6  cwt.  of  hay. 

Produce  and  Expense  of  Acre  JSTo.  I. 
40  loads  of  black  earth  from  an  adjoining  swamp,  at  Is. 

per  load, £2  00  00 

Cutting  five  crops  and  making  them  into  hay,  at  8s.      .    2  00  00 

Tons.    Cwt. 
Two  first  crops,  valued  at  5  cwt.  each,  or         2         0 
Third  crop  in  hay,  ....         2        0 

Fourth  crop      do.  ....  1         4 

Fifth,  estimated  at  ....  1         0 


6        4 

6  tons  4  cwt.,  at  2s.  6d £15  10  00 

Expenses  above,         .         .         .         .         .       .  4  00  00 


Profit, £11   10  00 


224  CULTIVATION  OF  GRASSES. 

clothing  the  surface  in  every  zone,  attaining  generally  a 
greater  height,  with  less  closeness  at  the  roots,  in  warm 
climates  ;  and  producing  a  low,  close,  thick,  dark  green 
nutritive  herbage,  in  the  cooler  latitudes.  The  best  grass 
pastures  are  found  in  countries  that  have  least  cold  in 
winter,  and  no  excess  of  heat  in  summer,  as  in  Ireland, 
England,  Holland,  and  Denmark.  In  every  zone,  where 
there  are  high  mountains,  there  are  certain  positions  be- 
tween the  base  and  summit,  where,  from  the  equilibrium 
of  the  temperature,  turf  may  be  found  equal  to  that  in 
marine  islands." 

The  universal  presence  of  the  forage  grasses,  and  the 
rapidity  with  which  all  soils  become  covered  with  them, 
when  left  uncultivated,  is  the  obvious  reason  why  their 
selection  and  systematic  culture  are  of  but  recent  date. 
This  branch  of  culture  originated  in  England,  about  the 
middle  of  the  seventeenth  century,  and  at  first  embraced 
only  rye-grass,  was  afterwards  extended  to  cock's-foot, 
timothy,  foxtail,  &c.  The  Duke  of  Bedford  made  the 
latest  and  most  laborious  efforts  towards  attaining  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  comparative  value  of  all  the  British  and  some 
foreign  grasses  worth  cultivating.  The  result  is  given 
in  the  Appendix  to  Sir  H.  Davy's  Agricultural  Chem- 
istry, and  of  which  an  abstract  will  be  found  at  the  close 
of  this  essay. 

With  respect  to  the  general  culture  of  grasses,  though 
no  department  of  agriculture  is  more  simple  in  the  execu- 
tion, yet,  from  the  nature  of  grasses,  considerable  judge- 
ment is  required  in  the  design.  Though  grasses  abound 
in  every  soil  and  situation,  yet  all  the  species  do  not 
abound  in  every  soil  and  situation  indifferently.  On  the 
contrary,  no  class  of  perfect  plants  are  so  absolute  and 
unalterable  in  their  choice  in  this  respect.  The  creep- 
ing-rooted and  stoloniferous  grasses  will  grow  readily  on 
moist  soils  ;  but  the  fibrous-rooted  species,  and  especially 
the  more  delicate  upland  grasses,  require  particular  at- 
tention as  to  the  soil  in  which  they  are  sown  ;  for  in  many 
soils  they  will  not  come  up  at  all,  or  die  away  in  a  few 
years,  and  give  way  to  the  grasses  which  would  naturally 
spring  up  in  such  a  soil,  when  left  to  a  state  of  nature. 


CULTIVATION  OF  GRASSES.  225 

Hence  in  sowing  down  lands  for  permanent  pasture,  it  is 
a  good  method  to  make  choice  of  those  grasses  which 
thrive  best  in  adjoining  and  similarly-circumstanced  pas- 
tures for  a  part  of  the  seed,  and  to  mix  with  these  what 
are  considered  the  very  best  kinds. 

Although  the  catalogue  of  grasses,  indigenous  and  for- 
eign, which  are  useful  for  forage,  is  numerous,  yet  the 
number  cultivated,  or  propagated  artificially,  is  very 
limited,  and  indeed  it  is  but  recently,  not  perhaps  half  a 
century,  that  we  have  been  in  the  habit  of  sowing  grass- 
seeds  at  all.  The  practice  is  however  gaining,  and  it  is 
reasonable  to  believe,  that  many  species  will  ere  long  be 
advantageously  cultivated,  which  have  hitherto  altogether 
escaped  the  notice  of  the  farmer. 

We  shall  confine  our  remarks,  at  present,  to  those  spe- 
cies which  are  cultivated,  upon  a  broader  or  less  scale, 
among  us.  And  we  begin  with  that  deemed  most  valua- 
ble as  a  forage  grass,  at  least  in  the  northern  States  ; 
viz., 

1 .  Timothy  J  better  known  in  the  east  as  herds-grass, 
and  in  Europe  as  meadow  cat^s-tail,  (Phleum  pratense.) 
This  is  the  general  forage  grass  of  the  northern  States. 
It  finds  here  a  congenial  climate,  particularly  in  moun- 
tainous districts,  is  perfectly  hardy,  perennial,  highly 
nutritious,  and  gives  an  abundant  product ;  and  it  should 
not  escape  the  notice  of  the  farmer,  that  it  is  far  more 
rich  in  nutritious  properties,  when  cut  in  the  seed,  than 
when  cut  in  the  blossom.  It  is  often  sown  alone,  but 
more  generally  with  clover  ;  though  the  two  are  not  well 
conjoined,  for  the  clover  is  in  condition  to  be  (^ut  two 
weeks  before  the  timothy  is  in  seed.  Yet  where  the 
grounds  are  intended  to  be  left  a  considerable  time  in 
grass,  the  loss  is  not  so  material  ;  for  the  clover  gradual- 
ly disappears,  while  the  timothy  enlarges  its  volume,  and 
fills  the  ground.  Although  the  crop  is  less  nutritious 
when  cut  early,  the  aftermath  compensates,  in  some  meas- 
ure, for  the  deficiency  ;  for,  if  suffered  to  seed,  the  after- 
growth is  comparatively  trifling,  and  the  exhaustion  to  the 
soil  is  far  greater.  The  maturing  of  the  seeds,  of  all 
crops,  is   what  most  impairs  the   fertility  of  the   soil. 


226  CULTIVATION  OF  GRASSES, 

Another  consideration  which  renders  this  grass  desirable 
is  the  value  of  the  seed  which  it  affords,  and  which  may 
be  saved  without  materially  deteriorating  the  hay  crop. 
From  ten  to  thirty  bushels  of  seed  are  taken  from  an  acre 
by  many  farmers,  in  the  valley  of  the  Mohawk,  and  con- 
stitute a  large  item  of  their  farm  profits.  The  seed  of 
this  grass  being  small,  particular  care  is  requisite  in  pul- 
verizing the  ground  for  its  reception,  and,  when  practica- 
ble, the  roller  should  follow  the  seeding  process.  The 
seed  may  be  sown  in  autumn  with  winter  grain,  in  the  spring 
with  a  crop,  or  at  midsummer  with  buckwheat.  Upon 
stiff,  tenacious  clays,  the  latter  practice  has  been  found 
to  be  advantageous,  unless  the  season  prove  unusually  dry. 
In  cutting  timothy  for  seed,  the  most  approved  mode 
is  to  reap  the  tops,  say  twelve  inches  long,  with  a  sickle, 
to  the  width  of  a  swath  or  two,  and  then  immediately 
to  cut  down  the  stems  with  a  scythe.  In  this  way,  all 
foul  seeds  may  be  avoided,  and  a  suitable  place  provided, 
as  the  cutting  progresses,  to  spread  and  dry  the  tops. 

2.  Red-top^  the  herds-grass  of  the  middle  and  south- 
ern States,  {Agrostis  vulgaris,)  is  indigenous,  perennial, 
and  valuable  for  hay  and  pasture,  on  lands  adapted  to  its 
growth,  which  are  reclaimed  swamps  and  other  moist 
grounds,  and  in  which  it  almost  every  where  springs  up  and 
flourishes  spontaneously.  This  grass  and  timothy  are  fit 
for  the  scythe  about  the  same  time,  and  are  therefore  very 
suitable  kinds  to  be  sown  together.  Its  cultivation  is  yet 
very  Hmited,  though  of  manifest  advantage.  The  seeds  are 
kept  for  sale  in  the  seed-shops.  The  lohite-top  or  foul 
meadow  is  said,  by  Muhlenburgh,  to  be  a  variety  of  the 
A.  vulgaris, 

3.  American  Cock^s-foot  and  Orchard-grass  are  dif- 
ferent names  given  to  the  Dactylis  glomerata  of  botanists. 
This  is  one  of  the  most  abiding  grasses  we  have.  It  may 
be  known  by  its  coarse  appearance,  both  of  the  leaf  and 
seed-spike,  its  broad  leaves,  seed-glumes  resembling  a 
cock's-foot,  and  also  by  its  whitish-green  hue.  It  is  prob- 
ably better  adapted  than  any  other  grass  to  sow  with  clo- 
ver and  other  seeds  for  permanent  pasture,  and  for  a 
crop  of  hay,  as  it  is  fit  to  cut  with  clover,  and  grows 


CULTIVATION  OF  GRASSES.  227 

remarkably  quick  after  being  cropped  by  cattle.  Five 
or  six  days'  growth  in  summer  suffices  to  give  a  good  bite. 
Its  good  properties  consist  in  its  early  and  rapid  growth, 
and  in  its  resistance  of  drought  ;  but  all  agree,  that  to  ob- 
tain its  greatest  value,  it  should  be  kept  closely  cropped. 
Sheep,  it  is  said,  will  pass  over  every  other  grass  to 
feed  upon  it.  If  suffered  to  grow  long  without  being 
cropped,  it  becomes  coarse  and  harsh.  Arthur  Young 
and  Mr.  Cook  commend  it  highly,  and  the  latter  culti- 
vates it  on  an  extensive  scale  at  Holkham.  Colonel  Pow- 
ell, of  Pennsylvania,  after  growing  it  ten  years,  declares, 
that  it  produces  more  pasturage  than  any  cultivated  grass 
that  he  has  ever  seen  in  America.  On  being  fed  very 
close,  it  has  been  found  to  afford  good  pasture  after  re- 
maining five  days  at  rest.  It  is  suitable  to  all  arable  soils. 
It  abounds  in  seed,  which  is  easily  gathered  ;  but,  on 
account  of  its  peculiar  lightness,  (the  bushel  not  weigh- 
ing more  than  twelve  or  fourteen  pounds,)  it  should  be 
spread  on  a  floor  and  sprinkled  with  water  a  day  or  two 
before  it  is  sown,  that  it  may  become  saturated,  and 
more  easily  germinate.  Two  bushels  of  seed  are  sown 
to  the  acre,  when  sown  alone  ;  and  half  this  quantity 
when  sown  with  clover.  The  orchard-grass  should  be 
cut  early  when  intended  for  hay,  as  it  diminishes  two  sev- 
enths in  value,  as  hay,  by  being  permitted  to  ripen  its 
seeds.  When  cut  early  with  clover,  the  after-growth,  or 
rowen,  is  very  abundant. 

4.  Tall  Oat-grass,  {Avena  elatior.)  Dr.  Muhlen- 
burgh,  and  Mr.  Taylor,  of  Virginia,  place  this  at  the 
head  of  good  grasses.  "  On  the  continent  of  Europe," 
says  Dickson,  "  in  comparison  with  common  grass,  it  is 
found  to  yield  in  the  proportion  of  twenty  to  two."  Dr. 
Muhlenburgh  says,  of  all  others  it  is  the  best  grass,  and 
earliest  for  green  fodder  and  hay.  The  Doctor  was  prob- 
ably not  advised  of  its  deficiency  in  nutritive  matter,  as 
indicated  in  the  experiments  of  Sinclair.  It  possesses 
the  advantage  of  early,  late,  and  quick  growth,  for  which 
the  orchard-grass  is  esteemed,  and  is  well  calculated  for 
a  pasture  grass.  We  have  measured  it  in  June,  when  in 
blossom,  (at  the  time  it  should  be  cut  for  hay,)  and  found 


228  CULTIVATION  OF  GRASSES. 

the  seed-stems  four  and  a  half  feet  long.  The  latter- 
math,  it  will  be  perceived  by  the  table  which  is  append- 
ed, is  nearly  equal  in  weight,  and  superior  in  nutritious 
matter,  to  the  seed  crop.  Sinclair  says  it  thrives  best 
on  a  strong  tenacious  clay  ;  and  Muhlenburgh  prefers  for 
it  a  clover  soil.  Dickson  speaks  well  of  it,  and  says  it 
makes  good  hay,  but  is  most  beneficial  when  retained  in 
a  close  state  of  feeding.  The  seed  falls  and  wastes  un- 
less gathered  early,  and  with  care.  Sow  at  the  rate  of 
six  or  eight  pecks  the  acre,  with  grain,  in  the  spring. 

5.  Sweet-scented  Vernal  Grass  {Anthoxanthum  odo- 
ratum)  is  a  foreign  perennial  grass,  of  dwarfish  habit,  sown 
principally  on  grounds  intended  for  pastures,  for  the  very 
early  feed  which  it  affords,  and  for  its  growing  quick  after 
being  cropped.  Muhlenburgh  says  it  delights  in  moist 
soils  ;  the  '  Bath  Papers'  assure  us  it  does  well  in  clayey 
loams  ;  and  Dickson,  that  it  grows  in  almost  any  soil, 
including  sands  and  bogs.  It  is  eaten  by  oxen,  horses, 
and  sheep,  though  not  so  freely  as  some  other  grasses  are. 

6.  JMeadow  Foxtail  (Jllopecurus  pratensis)  is  also  a 
foreign  grass,  possesses  all  the  advantages  of  early  growth 
with  the  preceding,  and  is  much  more  abundant  in  pro- 
duce and  nutriment,  but  is  not  so  well  suited  to  different 
soils.  It  almost  invariably  constitutes  one  of  the  several 
seeds  which  are  sown  together  by  the  British  farmer,  par- 
ticularly when  the  grounds  are  intended  for  pasture. 
"  Of  all  the  English  grasses,"  says  Dickson,  "  this  ap- 
pears to  be  the  best  adapted  for  cutting  twice.  It  starts 
up  very  rapidly  after  mowing  or  feeding,  and  produces 
an  abundant  aftermath."  It  does  best  in  moist  soils, 
whether  loams,  or  clays,  or  reclaimed  swamps.  It  abides 
nine  or  ten  years.  Sheep  and  horses  have  a  better  relish 
for  it,  according  to  G.  Sinclair,  than  oxen.  It  abounds 
in  seed,  says  Middleton,  which  is  easily  collected  from 
the  swath  during  mowing  time. 

The  two  preceding  grasses  were  probably  introduced 
first  some  years  ago,  into  the  neighborhoods  of  Boston, 
New  York,  Philadelphia,  &c.,  by  emigrants,  or  others  ; 
and  as  they  seed  earlier  than  the  orchard-grass  or  tall  oat, 
and  before  they  would  be  likely  to  be  cut  for  hay,  the 


CULTIVATION  OF  GRASSES.  229 

seeds  have  probably  been  scattered,  and  these  grasses 
are  now  found  in  those  neighborhoods,  among  the  natural 
grasses  of  the  meadows.  A  great  advantage  resulting 
from  sowing  these  seeds,  as  also  of  the  orchard  and  tall 
meadow-oat,  is,  that  they  are  disseminated  upon  the  farm, 
and  thus  tend  to  augment  the  natural  growth  of  herbage. 

7.  Rye-grass,  {Lolium  perenne.)  This  is  exten- 
sively cultivated  in  Scotland,  and  in  the  north  of  Eng- 
land, and  forms  the  principal  seed  sown  with  clover. 
There  are  several  varieties  ;  some  of  which  are  annual, 
and  others  biennial  and  perennial.  The  Italian  rye-grass 
has  within  a  few  years  attracted  notice,  as  being  superior 
to  the  other  kinds.  The  common  kinds  have  been  re- 
peatedly tried  in  the  United  States,  but  generally  with 
poor  success — our  summers  being  too  dry,  and  our  win- 
ters too  cold  for  it.  We  have  also  twice  tried  the  Italian 
variety,  but  the  result  has  induced  us  to  abandon  it,  as 
unsuited  to  our  climate.  To  those  who  wish  to  try  the 
rye-grass,  it  will  be  proper  to  add,  on  the  authority  of 
Dickson  and  others,  that  it  is  a  good  pasture  grass,  and 
is  valuable  in  rich  moist  meadows  ;  that  cows  and  sheep 
eat  it  freely  ;  and  that  Arthur  Young  considers  the  orchard- 
grass  superior  to  it.  The  biennial  rye-grass  is  preferred 
for  a  first  crop  with  clover,  as  being  of  larger  growth, 
and  better  suited  to  alternate  husbandry.  The  perennial 
is  preferred  for  grounds  that  are  to  be  left  longer  in  grass, 
as  it  abides  several  years.  The  Italian  variety  gives  the 
largest  produce,  and,  were  it  hardy  enough  to  withstand 
the  cold  of  our  winters,  would  no  doubt  become  a  valua- 
ble acquisition  to  our  husbandry. 

The  seed  sells  in  the  American  shops  at  three  to  four 
dollars  a  bushel.  On  the  whole,  we  do  not  recommend 
its  culture,  except  in  elevated  or  humid  districts. 

We  have  enumerated,  we  believe,  all  the  grasses,  that 
have  hitherto  been  cultivated  in  the  United  States  to  any 
considerable  extent.  There  are  many  other  species,  in- 
digenous and  foreign,  which  might  be  worthy  of  our  no- 
tice, and  which  may  yet  form  valuable  accessions  in  our 
husbandry,  whenever  they  shall  be  brought  into  notice, 
cultivated,  and  their  merits  determined,  in  experimental 
20  XV. 


230  CULTIVATION  OF  GRASSES. 

fanning.  There  are  other  grasses  that  spring  up  sponta- 
neously, and  which  produce  a  good  turf  without  labor,  as 
the  blue-grass  of  the  western  States,  or  flat-stalked  mead- 
ow-grass, {Poa  compressa,)  the  smooth-stalked  mead- 
ow-grass, {Poa  pratensis^)  the  red  meadow-grass,  {Poa 
aquatica^)  and  the  rough-stalked  meadow-grass  ;  (Poa 
trivialis  ;)  also  many  species  of  the  festuca  and  agrostis 
genera,  particularly  the  t^.  stricta,  of  which  our  quack  or 
witch-grass  is  a  variety. 

Upon  this  last  it  may  be  well  to  remark,  that  Dr.  Rich- 
ardson first  brought  this  grass  into  notice,  as  a  superior 
forage,  well  adapted  to  reclaimed  bogs  and  swamps,  par- 
ticularly in  mountainous  districts,  in  localities  where  other 
grasses  will  not  thrive.  The  pecuhar  value  of  the  florin 
arises  from  the  concrete  sap  laid  up  in  its  numerous  joints; 
and  indeed  it  may  be  remarked  that  the  straw  or  stems, 
of  all  plants,  are  rich  in  nutriment  in  proportion  to  the 
frequency  of  their  joints,  which  are  peculiarly  the  deposit 
of  nutritious  matters.  The  florin  suflers  less  in  weight 
and  nutriment,  by  frosts,  than  any  other  grass  ;  and  of 
course  affords  good  winter  pasture.  It  is  propagated  by 
stolens  or  roots  ;  the  ground  being  previously  drained, 
and  ameliorated  by  one  or  more  crops,  for  which  purpose 
potatoes  or  other  root  crops  are  preferable.  The  surface 
is  made  smooth  and  clean,  the  strings  or  roots  are  then 
strewed  over  it,  and  a  compost,  consisting  in  part  of  bog- 
ashes,  lime,  and  loam,  spread  over,  sufficient  to  prevent 
the  roots  being  blown  away.  The  quack,  switch,  or  witch 
grass,  a  variety  of  the  florin,  is  highly  nutritious,  roots 
and  all,  and,  if  cultivated  for  forage,  might  prove  a  proflt- 
able  crop  ;  but  the  objection  is,  it  interferes  too  much 
where  it  is  not  wanted,  and  will  stay  where  it  is  once  in- 
troduced. In  pasture  grounds,  however,  it  seldom  abides 
after  the  third  year. 

We  will  endeavor  to  class  the  grasses  of  which  the 
seeds  can  be  procured  in  this  country,  according  to  the 
best  data  in  our  possession,  for  the  uses  to  which  they 
are  best  adapted,  and  to  indicate  the  soils  on  which  they 
respectively  thrive.  But  before  we  do  this,  we  will  in- 
troduce Dickson's  classification  of  grasses  for  different 


CULTIVATION  OF  GRASSES.  231 

soils  in  Great  Britain,  v/hich  will  show  the  quantity  and 
variety  of  seeds  sown  to  the  acre  in  that  country. 

Clayey  Soils.  Marl  or  cow-grass,  5  lbs.  ;  trefoil,  5  lbs. ; 
crested  dog's-tail  grass,  10  lbs. ;  naeadow  fescue-grass,  one 
bushel ;  meadow  foxtail  grass,  one  bushel.  And  when 
the  three  last  cannot  be  procured,  meadow  soft-grass,  two 
bushels  ;  meadow  cat's-tail,  or  timothy,  4  lbs. 

Loamy  Soils,  White  clover,  5  lbs.  ;  crested  dog's- 
tail,  10  lbs.  ;  rye-grass,  one  peck  ;  meadow  fescue-grass, 
three  pecks  ;  meadow  fox-tail,  three  pecks  ;  yarrow,  two 
pecks.  Or,  where  the  second  cannot  be  had,  rye-grass, 
one  peck  ;  and  rib-grass,  4  lbs.  And  in  room  of  the  last 
three,  meadow  soft-grass,  half  a  bushel  ;  timothy  grass, 
4  lbs.  ;  marl  or  cow-grass,  5  lbs. 

Sandy  Soils.  White  clover,  7  lbs.  ;  trefoil,  5  lbs.  ; 
burnet,  6  lbs.  ;  rye-grass,  one  peck  ;  yarrow,  one  bushel. 
Or,  instead  of  the  last,  rib-grass,  4  lbs.  ;  rye-grass,  1  peck. 

Chalky  Soils.  Burnet,  10  lbs.  ;  trefoil,  5  lbs.  ;  white 
clover,  5  lbs. ;  yarrow,  one  bushel,  or,  in  its  place,  rye- 
grass, one  bushel. 

Peaty  Soils.  White  clover,  10  lbs.  ;  crested  dog's- 
tail  grass,  10  lbs.  ;  rye-grass,  one  peck  ;  meadow  fox- 
tail grass,  two  pecks  ;  meadow  fescue-grass,  two  pecks  ; 
cat's-tail,  or  timothy  grass,  one  peck.  Or  in  place  of  the 
second,  fourth,  and  fifth,  meadow  soft-grass,  six  pecks  ; 
rib-grass,  5  lbs.  ;  marl  or  cow-grass,  4  lbs.  Our  classi- 
fication embraces — 

I.  Grasses  best  suited  to  arable  lands,  and  designed  to 
alternate  with  grain  and  roots. 

II.  Those  best  adapted  for  hay  or  meadows  ;  and, 

III.  Grasses  which  are  most  profitably  sown  for  peren- 
nial pastures. 

I.  There  are  several  descriptions  of  land  which  are 
much  more  profitably  employed  in  tillage  than  in  grass, 
particularly  those  that  are  dry  or  light,  and  which  have 
little  tendency  to  produce  good  herbage.  Yet  constant 
cropping  with  grain  would  soon  exhaust  them  of  fertility, 
without  an  expense  for  manure  which  few  can  afford. 
The  system  of  introducing  artificial  or  sown  grasses,  after 
two,  three,  or  four  years'  tillage,  is  happily  calculated  to 


232  CULTIVATION  OF  GRASSES. 

avert  the  evil,  and  constitutes  one  of  the  late  improve- 
ments in  farming.  "  The  lands  are  thereby  not  only  pre- 
vented from  being  so  much  exhausted  as  would  otherwise 
be  the  case,  and  at  the  same  time  rendered  fit  for  the 
growth  of  particular  kinds  of  grain,  without  the  necessity 
of  fallowing  ;  but  a  much  larger  proportion  of  green  and 
other  food,  than  could  otherwise  be  obtained,  is  provided 
for  the  support  of  live  stock."  The  grasses  best  adapted 
to  this  purpose,  are  the  red  and  white  clovers,  lucerne, 
and  the  orchard,  tall  oat,  timothy,  and  rye  grasses.  Clover 
is  the  primary  dependance  on  all  soils  that  will  grow  it, 
and  particularly  where  gypsum  can  exercise  its  magic 
powers.  As  vegetables  are  said  to  exhaust  the  soil  in 
proportion  to  the  smallness  of  their  leaves,  (the  larger  and 
more  succulent  these,  the  more  nutriment  the  plant  draws 
from  the  atmosphere,  and  the  less  from  the  soil,)  clovers 
are  entided  to  the  high  commendation  they  have  received 
among  American  farmers.  But  as  these  plants  are  liable 
to  premature  destruction  by  the  frosts  of  winter,  it  is  pru- 
dent and  wise  to  intermix  with  their  seeds  those  of  some 
other  grass  more  to  be  depended  on.      For  this  purpose. 

On  sands^  light  loams,  and  gravels — and  these  consti- 
tute the  soils  usually  employed  in  convertible  husbandry 
— the  orchard-grass,  or  tall  meadow  oat-grass,  appears 
best  calculated  to  insure  profit.  They  grow  early,  delight 
in  a  clover  soil,  and  are  fit  for  the  scythe  when  clover  is 
in  bloom — the  period  at  which  it  ought  to  be  made  into 
hay.  The  hay  from  this  mixture  may  be  made  before 
the  harvest  commences  ;  and  if  the  soil  is  good,  a  second 
crop  may  be  cut  almost  equal  to  the  first.  If  intended 
for  pasture,  the  second  or  third  year,  either  of  these  grasses 
will  afford  more  abundant  herbage  than  timothy.  Lu- 
cerne may  be  sown  on  deep  sandy  loams. 

On  clays  and  heavy  loams,  timothy  may  be  sown  alone, 
or  those  grasses  named  in  the  preceding  paragraph,  sepa- 
rate or  mixed. 

On  wet  soils  and  reclaimed  swamps,  as  the  only  object 
of  tillage  ought  to  be  to  prepare  the  ground  to  be  laid 
down  in  grass,  the  kinds  indicated  in  the  preceding  re- 
marks as  suitable  for  such  soils,  and  intended  for  meadow 


CULTIVATION  OF  GRASSES.  233 

grasses,  should  be  selected,  yet  so  scanty  Is  our  assort- 
ment, that  we  can  only  name  timothy  and  herds-grass. 

II.  Meadows.  These  may  be  classed  under  three 
heads  :  viz.,  low  or  alluvial  lands,  on  the  banks  of  riv- 
ers, creeks,  and  brooks  ;  uplands  naturally  moist,  or  of 
clay  or  heavy  loam  ;  and  reclaimed  bogs  and  swamps. 
These  soils,  to  adopt  a  common  term,  are  natural  to 
grasses^  while  the  expense  of  tillage,  and  the  uncertainty 
of  a  crop,  render  it  most  proper  to  appropriate  them  to 
grass.  The  objects,  in  stocking  meadows,  are,  to  select 
those  grasses  which  yield  the  greatest  burden  of  hay ^  and 
afford  the  most  nutriment  for  cattle.  When  mixed  seeds 
are  employed,  care  should  be  taken  to  select  those  which 
can  be  most  profitably  cut  at  the  same  time.  The  impro- 
priety of  mixing  timothy  and  orchard-grass,  for  instance, 
will  be  apparent,  from  observing  that  the  last  should  be 
cut  in  the  latter  end  of  June,  while  the  former  continues 
to  improve  till  the  first  of  August.  Timothy  is  undoubt- 
edly the  best  grass  which  we  can  employ  for  meadows, 
on  moist  or  tenacious  soils.  Herds-grass,  and  rough-stalk- 
ed meado'^-grass,  often  come  in  spontaneously.  And  if 
the  timothy  is  left  standing  until  its  seeds  have  formed, 
seeds  enough  fall  to  supply  new  plants. 

For  light  loams ^  sands ^  and  gravels,  the  tall  oat  and 
orchard  grasses  are  probably  the  best  ;  and  to  these  may 
be  added  red  and  white  clover. 

The  great  difficulty  is,  to  prevent  the  deterioration  of 
meadows.  This  takes  place  from  the  better  grasses  run- 
ning out,  and  giving  place  to  coarser  kinds,  to  mosses,  and 
to  useless  and  noxious  plants  ;  aided,  often,  by  a  neglect 
to  keep  them  well  drained. 

Hence  it  is  of  the  first  importance  to  keep  the  surface 
soil  free  from  standing  water,  by  good  and  sufficient 
drains  ;  and  it  often  becomes  necessary,  and  in  most  cases 
advisable,  on  a  flat  surface,  to  lay  the  land  in  narrow 
ridges,  at  right  angles  with  the  ditches.  Another  precau- 
tion to  be  observed  is,  not  to  depasture  them  with  heavy 
cattle  when  the  ground  is  wet  and  poachy.  Harrowing  in 
the  fall  has  been  found  beneficial  to  meadows.  It  destroys 
mosses,  covers  the  seeds  of  grasses  which  have  fallen, 
20* 


234  CULTIVATION  OF  GRASSES. 

or  have  been  previously  sown,  and  thus  produces  a  suc- 
cession of  young  plants.  In  Europe,  top-dressings  of  lime, 
marl,  compost,  aehes,  and  yard  manure  are  repeated  at 
intervals  of  two  or  three  years.  In  I  landers,  extensive 
applications  are  made  in  this  way,  of  the  urine  of  animals, 
after  it  has  fermented,  or  been  diluted.  It  is  collected 
in  cisterns  under  the  stables,  and  adjoining  the  yard  in 
which  the  stock  are  fed,  summer  and  winter.  With  us, 
the  annual  application  of  a  bushel  of  plaster  of  Paris  is 
found  beneficial,  on  most  lands  not  absolutely  wet.  The 
gypsum  not  only  thickens  the  verdure  with  clover,  but  is 
of  advantage  to  most  of  the  other  grasses.  Stable  manure 
should  be  applied  only  when  it  can  be  spared  from  the 
more  profitable  uses  of  tillage,  as  it  is  far  more  beneficial 
mixed  with  the  soil  than  spread  upon  the  surface.  Its  most 
economical  application  as  a  top-dressing,  is  in  the  form 
of  compost,  made  by  mixing  it  with  bog-earth,  river  mud, 
the  wash  from  the  highways,  or  other  rich  earth,  at  the 
rate  of  one  load  of  dung  to  five  or  six  of  earth.  If  turned 
and  mixed  well,  this  constitutes  a  valuable  top-dressing  for 
grass  grounds,  and  is  best  applied  in  the  autum^.  When 
these  means  fail  to  insure  a  good  crop  of  hay,  it  is  time 
to  resort  to  the  plough,  a  course  of  crops,  and  reseeding 
III.  Pastures.  Here  the  object  is  to  obtain  those 
grasses  which  are  most  nutritious,  relished  by  cattle,  and 
which  supply  green  feed  from  March  to  December,  or 
such  a  mixture  as  will  give  a  succession  of  fresh  herbage 
during  the  grazing  season.  The  tall-oat,  rye,  and  orchard 
grasses  are  best  adapted  to  the  lighter  and  drier  soils, 
where  the  spontaneous  growth  of  clover  and  other  indige- 
nous grasses  should  be  encouraged  by  top-dressings,  or 
the  application  of  plaster.  In  moist  and  stiff  grounds, 
timothy  and  herds-grass  may  be  sown  with  the  tall-oat. 
Our  observations,  under  the  preceding  head,  in  regard  to 
draining,  top-dressing,  sowing  seeds,  and  scarifying  or  har- 
rowing, lose  none  of  their  force  when  applied  to  pasture 
grounds.  It  is  believed,  that,  if  once  introduced  upon  our 
farms,  the  valuable  grasses  which  we  want  would  propagate 
themselves.  If  so,  how  important  is  it  that  we  obtain  them, 
particularly  those  which  our  seed-shops  already  afford. 


235 


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THE  ATMOSPHERE.  237 

CHAPTER  XXIII. 

THE  ATMOSPHERE,   AND   ITS  USES  TO  THE  HUSBANDMAN. 

A  KNOWLEDGE  of  the  Constituents  of  the  atmosphere, 
and  of  the  various  and  important  offices  which  it  performs 
in  animal  and  vegetable  economy,  is  valuable  to  the  far- 
mer, not  only  as  aiding  him  in  promoting  the  health  of 
himself  and  his  family,  and  of  his  brute  animals — and  in  all 
his  rural  and  money-making  operations — but  as  offering  a 
source  of  high  intellectual  enjoyment.  Although  the  sub- 
ject may  be  deemed  too  abstruse  for  the  generality  of  far- 
mers, we  consider  it  fraught  with  so  much  useful  instruc- 
tion, that  we  venture  to  say  it  will  be  read  with  interest  by 
many  of  our  young  friends,  and  we  would  fain  hope  that  it 
may  lead  some  of  them  into  a  course  of  study,  in  physical 
science,  which  will  not  only  benefit  them  individually,  but 
ultimately  become  beneficial  to  the  human  family.  Nei- 
ther fame  nor  fortune  is  hereditary.  And  let  no  young 
man  be  deterred  from  aspiring  to  both,  because  he  is  the 
son  of  an  humble  farmer.  The  brightest  geniuses  of  the 
age  have  come  from  the  plough.  The  Creator  has  en- 
dowed us  with  power  to  become  acquainted  with  many 
of  the  apparent  phenomena  of  Nature,  and  of  rendering 
them  subservient  to  our  wants  ;  and,  in  this  free  country, 
the  humblest  individual  has  ample  leisure  and  means  to 
pursue  the  investigation,  and  win  the  reward.  The  time 
and  means  that  are  usually  devoted,  in  early  life,  to  frivo- 
lous, and  often  deleterious  pleasures,  would  suffice  to  lay 
in  a  stock  of  useful  knowledge,  which  would  become  a 
treasure  and  a  blessing  in  after-life.  But  it  should  never 
be  forgotten,  that  in  all  our  undertakings,  mental,  moral, 
and  physical,  a  determined  perseverance  is  the  only  ra- 
tional prelude  to  success.  With  these  views  and  hopes, 
we  shall  briefly  describe  the  principal  constituent  parts  of 
the  atmosphere,  and  some  of  its  more  important  offices, 
that  seem  most  likely  to  interest  the  agriculturist. 


238  THE   ATMOSPHERE,  AND 

The  atmosphere  is  composed  principally  of  two  invisi- 
ble gases,  termed  oxygen^  (sometimes  vital  air,  being 
indispensable  to  animal  life,)  and  azote  or  nitrogen,  in  the 
proportion  of  about  four  fifths  of  the  latter  to  one  fifth  of 
the  former.  This  proportion  is  found  to  exist,  with  tri- 
fling modifications,  in  all  latitudes  and  at  all  elevations. 
Although  these  elements  are  invisible  in  the  atmosphere, 
they  both  assmne  liquid  and  sohd  forms  under  many  and 
various  circumstances. 

Nitrogen  abounds  in  animals,  but  seldom  to  a  great 
extent  in  plants.  It  is  however  found  in  wheat,  in  what 
is  denominated  gluten,  and  it  is  this  which  gives  to  that 
grain  its  prominent  value.  It  abounds  in  the  urine,  but 
seldom,  or  but  partially,  in  the  dung  of  animals.  "  It  is 
the  base  of  ammonia  and  nitric  acid,  (aquafortis,)  and  ap- 
pears to  be  the  substance  which  Nature  employs  in  con- 
verting vegetable  into  animal  substances." — Fourcroy. 
Its  principal  office  seems  to  be,  to  neutralize,  in  some 
measure,  the  properties  of  oxygen,  and  to  render  it  fit  for 
respiration  and  combustion. 

Oxygen  enters  more  or  less  into  all  animal  and  vegeta- 
ble matters.  It  constitutes  88  parts  in  100  of  water, — 
forms  from  40  to  70  per  cent,  of  all  vegetable  acids, — 
more  than  40  per  cent,  of  the  wood  of  the  oak  and  beech, 
— about  50  per  cent,  of  starch,  the  nutritious  property, 
next  in  value  to  gluten,  of  grain,  pulse,  and  roots,  and  64 
per  cent,  in  sugar.  It  is  essential  to  animal  and  vegetable 
life  ;  it  is  necessary  to  fermentation,  to  combustion,  to  the 
germination  of  seeds,  and  to  the  growth  and  maturity  of 
plants  ;  and  combining  with  the  carbon  of  the  blood,  it 
produces  the  greatest  proportion  of  animal  heat.  It  also 
combines  with  metals  and  forms  oxydes,  or,  in  common 
language,  rust. 

Nitrogen  and  oxygen  are  called  simple  bodies,  because 
they  are  supposed  to  be  incapable  of  division  or  decom- 
position. 

Carbonic  acid  gas,  also,  is  found  to  constitute  about  one 
thousandth  part  of  the  atmosphere  ;  and  in  winter,  it  has 
been  found  to  amount  to  one  five  hundredth  part.  This 
is  a  compound  substance,  composed  of  two  parts  of  o.xy- 


ITS    USES   TO   THE    HUSBANDMAN.  239 

gen  and  one  of  carbon,  the  latter  being  found  pure  in  the 
diamond,  and  forming  the  substance  of  mineral  and  wood 
coals.  This  gas  is  produced  in  abundance  by  fermenta- 
tion, respiration,  and  combustion,  is  absorbed  and  decom- 
posed by  the  leaves  of  plants,  the  oxygen  being  set  free, 
and  the  carbon  being  converted  into  wood,  &c.  The 
causes  which  produce  it,  sometimes,  in  confined  situa- 
tions, give  it  in  such  excess  as  to  render  it  prejudicial  to 
animal  heahh ;  but  the  free  access  of  atmospheric  air  soon 
restores  the  equilibrium.  It  constitutes  much  of  the  prop- 
er food  of  plants.  Thus  animals  and  vegetables  are  mutu- 
ally benefited,  through  the  wise  provision  of  the  Creator, 
by  their  jDroximity  to  each  other — plants  giving  off  oxygen, 
necessary  to  animals — and  animals  giving  off  carbonic 
acid  gas,  the  pabulum  of  vegetable  life. 

Water  also  exists  in  the  atmosphere,  in  the  form  of  an 
elastic  fluid.  This  fluid  is  found  to  form,  at  the  tempera- 
ture of  50°  Fahrenheit,  about  one  fiftieth  of  the  volume  of 
the  atmosphere,  in  the  driest  time  in  summer,  and  is  in- 
creased with  the  increase  of  temperature — heat  accelera- 
ting the  evaporation  of  moisture  from  the  earth's  surface. 
When  the  temperature  of  the  air  is  diminished,  the  aque- 
ous fluid  is  condensed,  and  appears  in  the  atmosphere  in 
the  form  of  vapor,  or  clouds,  and  is  copiously  deposited, 
in  summer,  in  the  form  of  dew.  This  water  is  retained, 
principally,  in  the  lower  regions  of  the  atmosphere.  It 
is  so  slightly  united  with  the  other  elements  of  the  atmo- 
sphere, that  a  change  of  temperature  produces  a  change  in 
its_  proportions  ;  whilst  nitrogen,  oxygen,  and  carbonic 
acid  preserve,  always,  nearly  the  same  relative  proportions. 
"  Independently  of  those  bodies  which  essentially  con- 
stitute the  atmosphere,"  says  Chaptal,  "there  are  mingled 
in  it  the  exhalations  constantly  arising  from  the  earth  ; 
these  are  again  disengaged  from  the  air,  and  precipitated, 
as  soon  as  the  heat,  or  any  other  cause  which  occasioned 
their  ascension,  ceases  to  act  upon  them.  These  ex- 
halations modify  the  properties  of  the  air,  [by  the  carbonic 
acid  gas,  &c.  disengaged  from  animal  and  vegetable  mat- 
ters in  a  state  of  putrefaction,]  and  aflect  its  purity.  The 
oxygen  and  the  water  of  the  atmosphere  become  impreg- 


240  THE   ATMOSPHERE,   AND 

nated  with  the  particles  of  the  exhalations,  which  are  de- 
posited with  them  upon  the  surfaces  of  other  bodies,  when 
they  remain  in  contact,  or  enter  into  combination,  with 
them.  The  origin  and  dissemination  of  many  maladies 
may  be  traced  to  this  source  ;  the  germ  of  them  is  carried 
through  the  air  by  the  aqueous  fluid.  And  for  the  same 
reason  it  is,  that  intermittent  fevers  are  endemic  in  those 
situations  where  large  quantities  of  vegetable  matter  are 
undergoing  decomposition,  as  upon  the  borders  of  ponds 
and  marshes  ;  and  that  the  miasm,  which  arises  from  nu- 
merous animal  remains,  in  a  state  of  decomposition,  be- 
comes a  fruitful  source  of  disease.  It  is  for  the  same  rea- 
son also  dangerous,  under  some  circumstances,  to  breathe 
the  evening  air ;  the  aqueous  fluid  contained  in  it  is  loaded 
with  noxious  principles,  which  the  heat  of  the  sun,  during 
the  day,  had  caused  to  ascend  into  the  atmosphere.  The 
disagreeable  odor,  conveyed  to  us  in  mists,  is  owing  to 
the  power  of  the  aqueous  fluid  in  transmitting  the  exhala- 
tions arising  from  the  earth.  The  manner  in  which  the 
air  conveys  to  us  the  perfume  of  plants,  and  the  odors 
which  it  contracts  from  the  exhalations  of  bodies  in  a  state 
of  decomposition,  indicates  clearly  its  influence  in  produ- 
cing maladies,  and  still  more  plainly  its  power  of  propaga- 
ting those  that  are  contagious." — Chemistry  applied  to 
Agriculture. 

According  to  the  best  authorities,  a  man  inhales,  or  takes 
into  his  lungs,  from  six  to  ten  pints  of  air  at  every  respi- 
ration or  breath.  This  air  comes  in  contact  with  the 
blood  in  the  lungs,  and  both  the  blood  and  the  air  un- 
dergo a  material  change  in  consequence.  The  blood  im- 
bibes a  portion  of  the  oxygen  from  the  air,  assumes  a 
florid  red  hue,  and  acquires  thereby  the  power  of  sup- 
porting life,  and  is  fitted  to  become  a  part  of  the  living  ani- 
mal. The  air  receives,  in  return  for  the  oxygen,  or  vital 
air,  which  it  gives  to  the  blood,  about  an  equal  portion 
of  carbonic  acid,  which  vitiates  it,  and  renders  it  unfit  for 
further  respiration  ;  or,  if  this  vitiated  or  impure  air  is 
again  respired,  the  blood  becomes  likewise  vitiated  by  its 
contact  with  it,  and  all  its  functions  become  more  or  less 
disordered.      Atmospheric  air,  as  we  have  observed,  con- 


ITS   USES   TO  THE   HUSBANDMAN.  241 

tains  about  79  parts  of  nitrogen,  21  of  oxygen,  and  near- 
ly one  of  carbonic  acid.  A  greater  or  less  quantity  of 
oxygen  unfits  it  for  healthy  respiration,  and  causes  disor- 
ganization and  disease  in  the  animal  system.  When  at- 
mospheric air  is  inhaled  upon  the  lungs,  it  parts  with  8 
or  8|  per  cent,  of  its  oxygen,  and  receives  in  return  a 
like  quantity  of  carbonic  acid.  Thus  atmospheric  air 
becomes  rapidly  vitiated  by  being  breathed,  and  is  as 
speedily  restored  to  its  purity  by  healthy  vegetation,  which 
takes  up  the  carbonic  acid,  or  decomposes  it,  and  gives 
off,  or  sets  free,  oxygen.  According  to  Dr.  Bostock's 
estimate,  an  average-sized  man  consumes  about  45,000 
cubic  inches  of  oxygen,  and  gives  out  about  40,000  of 
carbonic  acid,  in  24  hours.  "  Taking,"  says  Dr.  Combe, 
"  the  consumption  of  air  at  20  cubic  inches  at  each  breath- 
ing, as  a  very  low  medium,  and  rating  the  number  of  res- 
pirations at  15  in  a  minute,  it  appears  that,  in  the  space 
of  one  minute,  no  less  than  300  cubic  inches  of  air  are 
required  for  the  respiration  of  a  single  person.  In  the 
same  space  of  time,  24  cubic  inches  of  oxygen  disappear, 
and  are  replaced  hy  an  equal  amount  of  carbonic  acid,  so 
that  in  the  course  of  an  hour  one  pair  of  lungs  will,  at  a 
low  estimate,  vitiate  the  air  by  the  abstraction  of  no  less 
than  1,440  cubic  inches  of  oxygen,  and  the  addition  of 
an  equal  number  of  carbonic  acid,  thus  constituting  a 
source  of  impurity  which  cannot  with  safety  be  over- 
looked." 

Atmospheric  air  becomes  vitiated  by  one,  or  a  combi- 
nation, of  the  following  causes  : — 

1.  By  animal  respiration  ; 

2.  By  decaying  animal  and  vegetable  matters  ; 

3.  By  stagnant  waters  ;  and, 

4.  By  combustion  in  close  apartments. 

Many  cases  are  cited  of  the  fatal  effects  of  breathing 
highly-vitiated  air  in  prisons,  in  small,  close  apartments, 
and  in  unhealthy  districts.  One  of  the  most  horrible  was 
that  which  occurred  in  the  Black  Hole  of  Calcutta,  where 
one  hundred  and  forty  Englishmen  were  thrust  into  a 
confined  place,  eighteen  feet  square,  in  which  there  were 
but  two  small  windows  on  one  side,  and  where  ventilation 
21  XV. 


242  THE  ATMOSPHERE,  AND 

J 

was  impossible.  Scarcely  was  the  door  shut  upon  the 
prisoners,  when  their  sufferings,  for  want  of  fresh  air, 
commenced,  and  in  six  hours  ninety-six  of  them  were 
dead.  In  the  morning  only  twenty-three  of  them  were 
living,  many  of  whom  were  subsequently  cut  off  by  pu- 
trid fever,  caused  by  the  dreadful  effluvia  and  the  corrup- 
tion of  the  air.  Other  cases  are  recorded  of  persons 
dying,  for  want  of  fresh  air,  in  small,  close  cabins  ;  and 
numerous  cases  are  annually  recorded  of  deaths  caused 
by  burning  charcoal  in  close  apartments,  where  the  oxygen 
is  abstracted  from  the  atmosphere,  by  the  carbon  of  the 
charcoal,  to  form  carbonic  acid.  But  it  is  not  only  where 
death  or  severe  sickness  ensues,  that  the  breathing  of  viti- 
ated air  is  hurtful  ;  it  is  alioays  prejudicial,  more  or  less, 
to  health  ;  it  impairs  the  constitution,  and  is  often  the 
latent  cause  of  diseases  which  uhimately  prove  fatal. 
"  The  chief  symptoms,"  says  Orfila,  "  which  follow  the 
breathing  impure  air,  are  great  heaviness  in  the  head, 
tinghng  in  the  ears,  troubled  sight,  a  great  inclination  to 
sleep,  diminution  of  strength,  and  falling  down."  These 
sensations  are  experienced  in  crowded,. heated  rooms,  in 
steam-boat  and  canal-boat  cabins,  &c. 

Decaying  animal  and  vegetable  matters  are  a  prolific 
source  of  disease,  by  vitiating  the  atmosphere  we  breathe, 
particularly  in  cellars,  close  yards,  or  other  places  where 
the  effluvia  they  generate  are  not  speedily  dissipated  by  the 
winds.  Hence  fevers  are  most  prevalent  where  due  re- 
gard is  not  had  to  cleanliness,  as  in  dwelhngs  where  there 
are  wet  and  dirty  cellars,  adjoining  filthy  yards  and  lanes, 
and  in  houses  in  and  about  which  animal  and  vegetable 
matters  are  suffered  to  accumulate  and  putrefy.  Hence 
the  sickness  that  pervades  newly-cleared  countries,  from 
the  decay  of  vegetable  matters,  on  the  first  exposure  of 
the  soil  to  the  full  influence  of  solar  heat. 

The  deleterious  influence  of  stagnant  waters  upon  the 
atmosphere  is  known  to  all,  and  when  combined  with 
animal  and  vegetable  putrefaction,  the  evil  is  greatly  in- 
creased. Hence  the  draining  of  marshes  and  wet  lands 
contributes  essentially  to  the  healthiness  of  a  neighborhood. 

Combustion  also  vitiates  the  air  in  close  rooms,  par- 


ITS   USES   TO   THE   HUSBANDMAN.  243 

ticularly  gas-lights — a  single  gas-burner  consuming  more 
oxygen,  according  to  Combe,  and  producing  more  car- 
bonic acid  gas,  to  deteriorate  the  atmosphere  of  a  room, 
than  six  or  eight  candles. 

We  shall  not  speak  of  the  other  matters  which  commingle 
in  the  atmosphere,  as  light,  heat,  and  electricity,  although 
they  possess  a  great  influence  upon  animals  and  plants — 
but  proceed  to  the  improvement,  and  the  application  to 
rural  affairs,  of  the  facts  already  estabhshed. 

We  MAY  profit  by  these  truths  : — 

1.  In  selecting  sites  for  our  dwellings — taking  care  to 
have  them  in  airy  situations,  remote  from  marshes,  ponds, 
and  stagnant  waters,  which  vitiate,  by  the  exhalations  they 
give,  the  atmosphere  we  breathe,  and  thereby  generate 
disease. 

2.  In  the  manner  of  constructing  our  dwellings.  The 
cellars  should  be  dry,  with  windows  at  opposite  sides,  for 
ventilation,  whenever  the  weather  will  permit.  The 
rooms  should  be  lofty,  and  rather  capacious  than  con- 
tracted, should  all  open,  by  windows,  to  the  exterior,  and 
should  be  ventilated  every  fair  morning  in  summer. 

3.  In  improving  our  personal  and  domestic  habits,  by 
practising  cleanliness,  an  ancient,  if  not  a  modern  virtue  ; 
— by  avoiding  the  deleterious  influence  of  the  night  air, 
especially  in  autumn,  when  much  vegetable  matter  is  in 
the  process  of  decay  ; — by  well  ventilating  our  apartments, 
particularly  when  the  atmosphere  is  pui-e  and  salubrious  ; 
— by  keeping  our  cellars  free  from  putrefying  vegetables, 
and  other  filth  ; — by  graduating  the  temperature  of  our 
rooms  in  winter,  which  should  not  be  suffered  to  rise 
above  64°  of  Fahrenheit ;  by  avoiding  hot  sleeping- 
apartments,  in  which  the  temperature  often  varies,  be- 
tween the  hour  of  going  to  bed,  where  fires  are  kept  up, 
and  the  hour  of  rising,  when  the  fires  have  gone  out, — a 
transition  too  trying  for  the  most  robust  constitution  ; — 
by  abandoning  the  use  of  foot-stoves,  which  transform 
our  wives  and  daughters  into  green-house  plants,  and 
render  them  too  sensitive  to  cold,  poison  the  air  they 
respire,  and  beguile  them  into  indolent  and  inactive  hab- 
its,  as    detrimental   to    their   health  as  to    their    useful- 


244  THE  ATMOSPHERE,   AND 

ness  ; — by  taking  frequent  exercise  in  the  open  air,  when 
our  habits  are  studious  or  sedentary  ; — by  sleeping  in 
rooms  without  fires,  with  open  partition  doors,  that  fresh 
air  may  at  all  times  have  free  access,  and  by  avoiding 
lodging  too  many  persons  in  the  same  room  ; — and  by 
inducing  our  females  to  go  warmly  and  tidily  clad,  as  well 
to  church  as  to  parties  of  pleasure.  How  many  human 
constitutions  are  ruined,  in  our  cities  and  villages,  by 
indulging  in  habits  which  philosophy  and  reason  teach  us 
to  avoid. 

4.  In  multiplying  ornamental  trees  and  shrubs  about 
our  dwellings^  which  serve  to  purify  the  air,  abate  the 
fervor  of  summer  heats,  by  carrying  off  a  portion  of  the 
caloric  with  the  moisture  they  exhale,  and  which  are 
withal  an  embellishment  and  an  evidence  of  good  taste. 

5.  In  the  construction  of  our  stables  and  cattle-sheds. 
Farm-stock  are  as  much  benefited  by  cleanliness  and  good 
air  as  man  ;  and  the  same  precautions  which  go  to  se- 
cure the  health  of  the  latter  are  essentially  requisite  to 
promote  the  thrift  and  well-being  of  the  former.  Hence 
the  importance  of  having  clean  and  well-ventilated  stables 
and  sheds,  of  removing  the  dung  so  that  it  does  not  under- 
go fermentation  in  the  stalls,  and  of  giving  cattle  whole- 
some exercise. 

6.  In  the  planting  of  our  seeds.  The  atmosphere  be- 
ing essential  to  germination,  both  on  account  of  the  oxy- 
gen and  heat  which  it  contains,  all  seeds  should  be  deposit- 
ed in  the  soil  within  its  reach  ;  they  should  be  put  just  so 
low  as  will  barely  secure  about  them  moisture  enough  to 
insure  their  germination.  We  have  reason  to  think,  thai 
small  seeds  often  fail  to  grow  from  being  buried  too  deep 
in  the  soil,  and  that,  even  if  they  germinate,  the  food  which 
the  cotyledons  afford,  and  which  is  their  only  support  till 
the  seminal  leaves  are  developed,  is  not  sufficient  to  carry 
the  plumula,  or  upright  shoot,  to  the  earth's  surface,  where 
alone  the  leaves  can  exercise  their  office  of  elaborating 
or  preparing  the  food. 

7.  In  the  management  of  our  field  and  garden  crops. 
The  soil  has  a  strong  affinity  for  water,  and  the  atmo- 
sphere penetrates  it  freely,  when  pulverulent  and  loose;  but 


ITS   USES   TO   THE   HUSBANDMAN.  245 

where  the  soil  is  compact  and  crusted,  neither  the  atmo- 
sphere nor  the  dews  are  able  fully  to  exert  their  salutary- 
influence  in  promoting  the  growth  of  the  vegetation  upon 
it.  In  the  former  case,  the  soil  is  like  a  sponge,  per- 
vious to  atmosphere  and  dew,  and  transmitting  both  to 
the  roots  of  plants,  whh  the  elementary  food  with  which 
they  are  both  charged.  But  where  the  earth  is  hard  and 
crusted,  by  alternate  rain  and  sunshine,  neither  dew  nor 
air  penetrates  freely,  and  the  former  is  dissipated  by  the 
first  rays  of  the  morning  sun.  Hence  the  best  preventive 
against  the  evils  of  drought,  is  the  frequent  stirring  of  the 
surface,  and  keeping  it  constantly  permeable  to  atmo- 
spheric air,  and  the  vegetable  nutrition  with  which  it 
abounds.  We  remember  an  account  of  a  remarkable 
illustration  of  the  benefit  of  frequently  stirring  the  surface 
of  cultivated  lands,  given  by  Curwen,  a  distinguished 
British  agriculturist.  He  prepared  a  field  of  stiff,  forbid- 
ding land,  and  planted  it  with  cabbages.  His  neighbors 
all  declared  he  would  get  no  crop  ;  but  he  put  a  horse 
and  cultivator  among  the  plants,  and  subjected  the  ground 
to  almost  constant  stirring  during  the  growing  season. 
The  result  was,  he  gathered  an  immense  crop,  some  of  the 
cabbages  weighing  over  50  lbs.  each.  The  farmer  may 
derive  great  benefit  from  this  practice  in  the  culture  of 
drilled  and  hoed  crops,  provided  he  does  not  go  so  deep 
as  to  cut  the  roots  of  his  plants,  or  throw  his  manure  to 
the  surface. 

8.  In  draining  our  wet  lands ^  which  will  contribute  at  the 
same  time  to  promote  health,  and  augment  our  profits. 
For,  generally  speaking,  our  wet  and  marshy  lands  are 
the  richest  in  organic  matters,  and  become  the  most  prof- 
itable to  the  owner,  when  thoroughly  drained.  And, 
lastly,  we  may  profit  from  the  facts  we  have  detailed — 

9.  In  the  management  of  our  manure.  All  the  food 
of  vegetables  must  be  resolved  into  a  liquid  or  gaseous 
form,  before  it  can  enter  the  mouths  of  plants,  or  become 
incorporated  in  the  vegetable  structure.  This  change  is 
effected,  in  dung,  by  fermentation  or  decomposition,  by 
which  the  parts  are  separated.  The  gaseous  matters  first 
escape.    If  fermentation  takes  place  in  the  soil,  the  earths 

21* 


246  GERMINATION   OF   SEEDS. 

imbibe,  and  the  plants  growing  thereon  are  nourished  by 
them.  If  fermentation  takes  place  upon  the  surface, 
either  in  the  yard  or  in  the  field,  these  gases  rise,  from 
their  specific  gravity  being  less  than  that  of  atmospheric 
air,  and  are  dissipated  by  the  winds.  The  liquid  matters 
escape  next.  If  buried  in  the  soil,  the  soil  absorbs  and 
gives  them  off  to  plants.  If  left  upon  the  surface,  they  are 
washed  away  by  rains,  or  sink,  with  little  or  no  benefit  to 
the  owner,  into  the  earth  beneath  them.  The  whole  of 
the  matter  of  dead  animals  and  plants  is  convertible,  if 
buried  in  the  soil,  into  living  plants,  by  the  ordinary  pro- 
cesses of  Nature  ;  and  it  is  capable,  however  solid  it  may 
seem,  of  being  reduced  to  liquid  or  gaseous  forms,  fitted 
to  the  wants  of  our  crops.  Indeed,  it  proceeds  to  take 
these  forms  immediately,  on  its  losing  its  vitality,  as  soon 
as  it  comes  in  contact  with  air,  heat,  and  water,  the  great 
agents  of  decomposition.  The  moment  fermentation  be- 
gins, the  waste  of  vegetable  food  begins,  if  the  fermenta- 
tion takes  place  upon  the  surface  ;  carbonic  acid  gas  is 
disengaged,  and  is  scattered  by  the  winds  ;  the  oxygen 
of  the  atmosphere,  uniting  with  the  hydrogen  of  the  mass, 
forms  water,  which  settles  into  the  ground,  or  is  carried 
off  by  the  rains  ;  the  mass  is  reduced  in  volume  ;  and 
when  fermentation  has  exhausted  its  force,  it  has  lost  one 
half  of  its  fertilizing  properties.  If  the  fermentation  takes 
place  in  the  dung-yard,  or  upon  the  field,  we  repeat, 
this  half  is  lost  to  all  useful  purposes  of  the  farm.  If  it 
takes  place  in  the  soil,  the  earth  imbibes  it,  and  the  plants 
growing  thereon  are  fed  and  nourished  by  it — the  gases 
and  hquids  are  converted  into  the  solid  matter  of  the  grow- 
ing crop,  be  it  grain,  grass,  pulse,  or  roots. 


CHAPTER  XXIV. 

ON  THE  GERMINATION  OF  SEEDS. 

Seeds  often  fail  to  grow  ;  and  the  seedsman  is  as 
often  blamed,  for  vending  bad  seeds,  when  they  are  reaUy 


GERMINATION   OF   SEEDS.  247 

good,  and  when  the  cause  of  their  not  growing  is  owing 
to  the  gardener  or  planter.  To  induce  germination, 
moisture,  atmospheric  air,  and  a  certain  temperature,  are 
indispensable  ;  and  it  is  also  requisite  that  light  be  ex- 
cluded, until  the  nutriment  in  the  seed  is  exhausted,  or 
until  the  root  can  draw  nourishment  from  the  soil.  The 
first  effect  of  the  air,  heat,  and  moisture  upon  the  seed  is 
to  change  its  properties, — to  convert  its  starch  into  sugar 
— into  a  sort  of  milky  pulp,  the  proper  food  of  the  em- 
bryo plant.  If  at  this  stage  the  seed  becomes  dry,  its 
vitality  is  believed  to  be  destroyed  ;  but  if  these  agents 
are  permitted  to  exert  their  influence,  the  contents  of  the 
seed  swell  by  degrees,  and  the  first  point  of  the  future 
root,  having  formed,  breaks  through  the  shell  in  a  down- 
ward direction,  and  at  about  the  same  time  the  point  of 
the  future  stem  comes  forth  in  an  upward  direction.  The 
presence  of  air,  heat,  and  moisture  is  as  indispensable  to 
the  growth  of  the  plant,  as  it  is  to  the  germination  of  the 
seed. 

Now  it  often  happens,  when  seeds  are  planted  in  fresh- 
stirred  ground,  or  where  the  soil  is  moist,  they  undergo 
the  incipient  process  of  fermentation,  and  the  earth  not 
being  pressed  upon  them,  and  dry  weather  ensuing,  the 
moisture  is  abstracted,  and  the  seeds  perish.  Too  much 
moisture  is  also  often  destructive  to  the  vital  principle  of 
seeds, — and  others  again  are  buried  too  deep  to  be  vivi- 
fied by  solar  and  atmospheric  influence.  The  first  ob- 
ject in  planting,  therefore,  should  be,  to  place  the  seed 
just  so  far  under  the  surface,  and  so  to  cover  it  with 
earth,  as  shall  barely  secure  to  it  a  constant  supply  of 
moisture.  There  are  many  seeds,  as  of  the  carrot,  pars- 
nip, orchard-grass,  &c.,  which,  if  not  previously  steeped, 
or  the  soil  well  pulverized  and  pressed  upon  them,  fail  to 
grow  for  want  of  moisture.  Hence,  in  sowing  orchard- 
grass,  it  is  found  prudent  to  spread  the  seed  upon  a  floor, 
and  sprinkle  it  with  water,  before  it  is  sown,  and  to  pass 
a  roller  over  the  ground  after  it  is  sown.  And  hence,  in 
light  garden  mould,  it  is  advisable  to  press,  with  the  hoe 
or  spade,  the  earth  upon  all  light  seeds  after  they  are 
sown. 


248  GERMINATION   OF    SEEDS. 

But  we  would  draw  the  attention  of  the  farmer,  as  well 
as  of  the  gardener,  to  another  mode  of  preventing  failure 
and  disappointment  in  the  growth  of  certain  seeds — and 
that  is,  by  sprouting  them  before  they  are  planted.  This 
may  be  conveniently  done  with  Indian  corn,  pumpkins, 
mangel  wurtzel,  beets,  &c.,  on  the  farm,  and  with  mel- 
ons, beans,  cucumbers,  peppers,  and  a  great  number 
of  other  seeds,  which  are  assigned  to  the  garden.  The 
mode  of  doing  it  with  the  field-seeds  we  have  named  is 
this  :  Steep  the  seeds  twelve  or  twenty  hours  in  water  of 
a  tepid  or  warm  temperature — then  take  off  the  water, 
and  leave  them  in  a  warm  place,  covered,  to  exclude  the 
light  and  prevent  their  drying,  or  in  a  dark  cellar  or 
room,  and  the  radicles  or  roots  will  shoot  in  a  few  days, 
and  may  then  be  planted  without  injury.  Being  obliged 
to  suspend  our  planting  four  days,  on  account  of  rain,  we 
found  our  seed,  which  had  been  previously  steeped,  and 
set  by  in  a  dark  room,  with  radicles  two  or  three  inches 
long.  It  was  planted  with  but  little  inconvenience,  and 
did  remarkably  well.  Mr.  I.  Nott  sprouted  a  part  of  his 
corn  last  year,  while  a  part  of  the  seed  was  not  sprouted, 
— and,  what  is  worthy  the  particular  notice  of  the  farmer, 
he  assures  us,  that  the  sprouted  corn  was  not  injured  by 
the  wire-worm^  while  the  unsteeped  seed  was  seriously  in- 
jured, although  planted  by  the  side  of  each  other.  Mr. 
Nott  accounts  for  the  difference  in  this  way :  The  wire- 
worm  attacks  the  chit,  and  feeds  upon  and  destroys  the 
germ  ;  but  the  radicles  having  protruded,  and  not  being 
to  the  taste  of  the  worm,  the  insect  attacked  the  solid 
part  of  the  kernel,  where  its  progress  was  too  slow,  and 
too  remote  from  the  germ,  to  retard  its  growth.  Mr. 
Nott  also  sprouted  his  mangel  wurtzel  seed,  and  planted 
it  so  late  as  the  27th  of  June.  Almost  every  seed  grew, 
and  the  crop  might  be  called  a  good  one  early  in  Septem- 
ber. 

To  sprout  garden-seeds,  procure  two  sods,  of  equal 
size,  say  18  inches  square  ;  lay  one  down  in  the  corner 
of  the  kitchen  chimney,  grass  down  ;  lay  your  seeds  upon 
it ;  if  small,  wrap  them  in  a  piece  of  brown  paper  ;  then 
place  the  other  sod  upon  them,  grass  up — water  well  with 


ON   STALL-FEEDING  CATTLE.  249 

warm  water,  and  the  seeds  will  sprout  in  twenty-four  to 
forty-eight  hours. 

There  is  one  manifest  advantage  in  sprouting  seeds, — 
it  tests  their  goodness,  and  shows  whether  they  will  or 
will  not  grow.  A  small  quantity  of  seed-corn,  submitted 
to  this  test  before  planting,  would  in  many  instances  pre- 
vent great  loss  to  the  farmer. 


CHAPTER  XXV. 

ON  STALL-FEEDING  CATTLE. 

In  the  management  of  our  cattle,  as  in  the  management 
of  our  crops,  much  is  lost  for  want  of  system  and  regular- 
ity. The  stall-feeding  of  neat  cattle  for  the  butcher  is 
annually  increasing,  and  promises  to  increase  in  interest, 
as  we  progress  in  the  culture  of  roots.  There  is  proba- 
bly the  difference  of  one  third  to  one  half,  in  the  profits 
of  the  business,  whether  it  is  well  or  badly  managed. 
Under  this  view  of  its  importance,  we  extract  from  the 
'Farmer's  Series'  the  following  compendium  of  the  man- 
agement recommended  in  that  work. 

"  The  first  point  is  the  comfort  of  accommodation  ; 
for  in  whatever  way  they  [cattle]  may  be  placed — whether 
under  sheds  or  in  close  ox-houses — they  should  have  the 
security  of  perfect  shelter  from  the  weather,  with  a  certain 
degree  of  warmth  ;  that  is  to  say — if  in  open  hammels,  the 
sheds  should  be  broad,  the  roof  low,  and  the  floor  well 
covered  with  an  abundance  of  dry  litter.  We  are,  how- 
ever, decidedly  of  opinion,  that  close  walls  will  further  the 
object  more  promptly ;  though  we  do  not  coincide  in  the 
idea  that  it  will  be  promoted  by  too  much  heat  ;  and  we 
should  therefore  recommend  a  moderate  degree  of  healthful 
ventilation.  In  these  stalls  Htter  is  very  frequently  dispens- 
ed with — or  else  sand,  or  any  rubbish,  is  substituted  for 
straw  ;  but  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  animals  enjoy  the 
comfort  of  a  dry  bed  as  well  as  their  master,  and  the  more 
they  seek  repose  in  it  the  better. 


250  THE   ECONOMY   OF 

"  The  next  Is  strict  regularity  In  the  administration  of 
food — both  as  regards  the  stated  quantity  and  the  time  of 
supplying  it.  The  periods  may  be  regulated  as  the  feeder 
thinks  proper  ;  but,  whenever  adopted,  should  never  after- 
wards be  altered.  Oxen  are  quiet  animals,  and  those 
which  are  fed  In  the  house  soon  acquire  a  precise  knowl- 
edge of  the  exact  hour  at  which  food  is  usually  given  ;  and 
If  that  be  transgressed,  or  the  quantity  be  not  furnish- 
ed, they  become  restless  ;  but  If  the  time  and  quantity  be 
strictly  adhered  to,  they  remain  tranquil  until  the  next 
period  arrives.  If  no  disturbance  takes  place,  they.  In- 
deed, generally  lie  down  to  ruminate,  and  nothing  will  be 
found  to  forward  the  process  of  fattening  more  than  this 
perfect  quietude  ;  wherefore,  the  stalls  should  not  only 
be  well  bedded,  but  light  should  be  very  much  excluded, 
the  doors  should  be  closed,  all  outward  annoyances  as  far 
as  possible  prevented — and,  in  short,  every  means  should 
be  used  to  promote  complete  ease,  rest,  and  contentment. 

"  Some  persons  serve  out  food  as  often  as  five  times  a 
day  ;  but  the  most  prudent,  and  the  better  practice.  Is  to 
give  it  as  soon  as  possible  after  day-light,  at  noon,  and 
some  time  before  sunset ;  which  enables  the  animals  to 
fill  their  bellies,  and  to  have  sufficient  time  for  that  quiet 
digestion  which  is  interrupted  by  too  frequent  feeding. 
In  stating  that  the  quantity  should  be  moderate,  we  how- 
ever alluded  merely  to  the  not  allowing  the  animal  to  have 
so  much  as  to  cloy  him  ;  he  ought  always  to  have  as  much 
as  he  can  fairly  eat  with  a  relish,  but  the  moment  he  begins 
to  toss  It  about,  it  will  be  then  evident  that  the  keenness 
of  his  appetite  Is  satisfied,  and  it  should  be  Instantly  re- 
moved. 

"  The  last  is  thorough  cleanliness.  The  ox-house 
should  be  opened  before  day-light,  and  well  cleansed,  both 
by  pail  and  broom,  from  every  Impurity.  After  the  ani- 
mals have  been  satisfied  with  food,  whatever  may  remain 
should  be  Instantly  removed,  and  the  cribs  and  mangers 
should  be  swept  out,  and  washed,  if  necessary  ;  water 
should  then  be  given  without  limitation.*     If  their  hides 

*  According  to  an  experiment  stated  by  Sir  John  Sinclair,  an  old 
man  was  appointed    to  discover  how  often  some  cattle,  consuming 


CUTTING  UP   CORN.  251 

be  then  wisped,  it  visibly  occasions  a  very  pleasurable  sen- 
sation ;  as  they  begin  to  fatten,  the  ancient  coat  falls  off, 
and  if  this  be  accelerated  by  the  curry-comb,  the  better 
appearance  of  the  beast  will  well  repay  the  trouble." 


CHAPTER  XXVI. 

THE  ECONOMY  OF  CUTTING  UP  CORN. 

Thirty  years  ago,  we  read  a  communication  of 
John  Nicholas,  then  we  believe  of  Virginia,  on  the  advan- 
tages of  cutting  up  instead  of  topping  Indian  corn.  These 
advantages  appeared  to  us  so  palpable,  that  in  the  noviti- 
ate of  our  farming  operations,  twenty-odd  years  ago,  we 
reduced  it  to  practice  ;  and  although  since  we  have  occa- 
sionally adopted  the  topping  system,  by  way  of  compari- 
son, we  have  made  it  our  general  practice  to  cut  up  the 
crop  ever  since.  We  are  convinced,  from  our  long  expe- 
rience, that  it  possesses  over  the  old  mode  the  following 
advantages. 

1 .  It  saves  labor.  With  proper  implements,  which  ev- 
ery farm  can  furnish  without  expense,  two  smart  men  will 
cut  up  and  stook  two  acres  in  a  day.  They  cannot  top 
more  than  one  acre,  and  they  are  to  be  bound,  stooked, 
and  backed  off  the  field,  or  left  to  be  bleached  till  the 
corn  is  harvested,  when  they  have  lost  half  their  value. 
A  hill  is  gathered  with  a  blow  in  cutting  up  ;  in  topping, 
a  cut  must  be  made  upon  every  stalk. 

2.  It  adds  to  the  grain  crop.  We  have  satisfied  our- 
selves, by  careful  experiments,  that  we  gain  six  to  ten 
bushels  of  corn  per  acre,  by  cutting  up,  above  what  we 

chaff  and  straw  upon  a  farm,  went  to  the  watering-trough  in  a  short 
winter's  day,  and,  that  he  might  not  be  confused  in  the  execution  of 
his  orders,  one  particular  bullock  was  pointed  out  for  his  report  ;  ac- 
cording to  which,  it  drank  eight  times  in  the  course  of  the  day,  and 
the  man  was  convinced  that  the  rest  of  the  cattle  drank  as  often  as  the 
one  fixed  on.  Now,  twice  a  day  is  generally  the  most  in  which  they 
get  water  ;  and  they  are  not  able,  at  one  or  two  opportunities,  to 
drink  a  sufficient  quantity. — Husbandry  of  Scotland,  p.  100. 


252        ECONOMY  OF  CUTTING  UP  CORN. 

obtain  by  topping  our  corn.  And  we  account  for  it  on 
the  well-known  principles  in  vegetable  physiology,  that  all 
the  nutriment  of  plants  must  be  elaborated,  or  prepared,  in 
the  leaves,  and  that  this  elaborated  sap,  or  prepared  food, 
descends — consequently,  that  w^hen  the  leaves  above  the 
corn  are  taken  off,  by  topping,  the  grain  can  gain  no  further 
nutriment,  or  accession  of  growth  ;  and  that  when  the 
crop  is  cut  up,  and  stooked,  the  grain  does  continue  to 
obtain  nutriment,  and  accession  of  growth,  for  some  days, 
from  the  descending,  or  elaborated  sap,  with  which  the 
succulent  stems  are  abundantly  charged.  The  leaves 
also  continue  their  elaborating  process  for  some  days 
after  the  corn  is  cut. 

3.  It  augments  the  cattle-fodder,  and  preserves  its  nu- 
tritious properties.  Cut  and  well  stooked,  neither  the 
grain  nor  the  forage  is  likely  to  be  seriously  injured  by 
the  weather,  even  if  left  in  the  field  late.  If  topped,  the 
tops  must  be  exposed  to  the  deteriorating  influence  of  the 
rains,  winds,  and  sun,  until  they  are  dry  enough  to  bind, 
which  diminishes  their  value.  If  cut  up,  the  whole  of  the 
stalks  are  converted  into  forage.  If  topped,  but  a  small 
part  becomes  useful.  And  if  the  butts  are  fed  in  the  cat- 
tle-yards, they  imbibe  additional  fertilizing  properties  from 
the  urine  and  hquids  which  abound  there,  and  which  are 
lost  if  there  is  no  litter  to  absorb  them.     Hence, 

In  the  fourth  place,  it  gives  more  food  to  the  crops 
as  well  as  to  the  cattle,  by  saving  that  which  otherwise  is 
often  lost  to  the  farm.      And, 

Finally,  cutting  up  has  this  important  advantage,  at 
least  in  the  north, — it  secures  the  crop,  both  grain  and  for- 
age, from  the  damage  of  early  autumnal  frosts — for  after 
the  grain  is  cut  and  stooked,  it  is  not  liable  to  injury  from 
their  occurrence.  We  may  add,  that  the  ground  may  be 
cleared  two  or  three  weeks  earlier,  for  a  winter  crop, 
where  it  is  desirable  to  sow  in  autumn. 


ON  RURAL  EMBELLISHMENT.  263 

CHAPTER  XXVII. 

ON  RURAL  EMBELLISHMENT. 

There  are  few  things  better  calculated  to  attach  us  to 
our  HOMES, — where  the  social  virtues  love  to  congre- 
gate, and  to  dispense  their  blessings,  than  rural  embel- 
lishments. This  is  true  whether  we  apply  the  term  to 
our  neighborhood  or  individual  abode.  The  public  grounds 
about  the  great  cities  of  the  old  continent,  some  of  which 
comprise  an  area  of  five  hundred  acres,  are  the  theme  of 
general  admiration,  the  theatres  of  healthful  exercise  and 
recreation,  and  the  sources  of  high  intellectual  enjoyment. 
The  lesser  towns  and  villages,  even  of  our  own  country, 
owe  more  of  their  charm  and  interest  to  the  trees  and 
plants  which  embellish  their  squares,  streets,  and  grounds, 
in  the  eye  of  a  man  of  taste,  than  to  any  ostentatious  show 
of  brick  and  mortar — more  to  the  beauties  of  Nature, 
than  to  the  works  of  man.  Nay,  the  highest  efforts  of 
the  human  intellect  are  in  vain  put  in  requisition  to  imitate 
the  handiworks  of  the  Creator.  And  when  we  come 
down  to  the  suburban  residence,  and  even  to  the  unostenta- 
tious abode  of  the  farmer,  how  are  their  beauties  height- 
ened, and  their  value  enhanced,  by  a  screen  of  ornamen- 
tal trees,  and  a  well-kept  garden. 

Loudon  tells  us,  that  in  travelling  from  Strasburgh  to 
Munich,  he  passed  through  a  continued  avenue  of  forest 
and  fruit  trees,  planted  on  both  sides  of  the  highway,  for 
more  than  one  hundred  miles.  Who  that  has  passed 
through  New  England,  in  summer,  has  not  admired  the 
beautiful  trees  with  which  he  is  in  a  measure  enshroud- 
ed.'' The  great  objection  to  planting  is,  that  one  may 
not  live  to  enjoy  the  fruit  or  the  shade  of  the  trees  which 
he  plants.  Such  an  objection  is  unworthy  of  the  age, 
which  should,  if  it  does  not,  have  regard  to  the  interests 
of  the  human  family,  and  of  posterity, — and  is,  besides, 
affecting  to  hold  a  shorter  tenure  of  life  than  all  of  us  hope 
22  XV. 


254  ON  RURAL  EMBELLISHMENT. 

for,  and  most  of  us  expect.  Twenty  years  ago,  at  forty 
years  of  age,  we  commenced  the  cultivation  of  what  was 
termed  a  barren,  untameable  common,  not  an  acre  of  which 
had  been  cultivated,  and  on  which  a  tree  or  shrub  had 
never  been  planted  by  the  hand  of  man.  We  have  now 
growing  in  our  court-yard,  comprising  about  half  an  acre, 
and  in  the  highway  in  front  of  it,  fifty  species  of  forest  and 
ornamental  trees,  many  of  them  forty  and  fifty  feet  high, 
more  than  fifty  species  of  ornamental  shrubs,  not  including 
the  rose,  besides  a  vast  number  of  herbaceous,  ornamen- 
tal, and  bulbous  and  flowering  perennial  plants — the  great- 
est number  of  which,  in  all  their  variety  and  hue  of  foli- 
age, flowers,  and  fruit,  may  be  embraced  in  a  single  view 
from  the  piazza.  Most  of  our  fruits  have  been  raised  by 
us  from  the  seed,  or  propagated  by  grafting  or  budding. 
Yet  we  can  enumerate  more  than  two  hundred  kinds,  in- 
cluding varieties,  which  we  are  now  in  the  habit  of  gath- 
ering annually  from  trees,  vines,  &c.  of  our  own  planting. 
We  feel  grateful  to  God  for  these  rich  and  abundant  bles- 
sings, and  for  the  impulse  which  prompted  our  labor.  We 
have  adduced  our  own  example,  not  in  a  spirit  of  vaunting, 
but  to  convince  the  young  and  the  middle-aged,  that  there 
is  abundant  reason  for  them  to  plant,  with  the  hope  of  en- 
joying the  fruits  of  their  labor.  The  old  should  plant  from 
an  obligation  they  owe  to  society,  and  for  the  requital 
of  which  they  have  but  a  short  period  allowed  them. 
The  young  should  plant  for  the  double  purpose  of  ben- 
efiting themselves  and  their  children. 

We  would  by  no  means  advise  that  the  farmer  should 
confine  himself  to  mere  ornamental  trees.  There  are 
many  fruit-trees  that  are  not  only  ornamental  but  useful, 
about  dwellings,  as  the  cherry,  pear,  apple,  quince,  &c. 

There  is  not  a  spring  or  an  autumn  in  which  a  few 
hours  cannot  be  spared,  without  detriment  to  the  labors 
of  the  farm,  to  plant  out  fruit  and  ornamental  trees  and 
shrubbery  about  the  dwelling,  and  but  very  few  hours  are 
requisite.  There  is  no  great  art  required  in  the  business. 
The  holes  for  the  plants  should  be  dug  larger  and  deeper 
than  the  size  of  the  roots,  in  order  that  these  may  be  sur- 
rounded on  all  sides  by  rich  surface  mould,  into  which  the 


ON  RURAL   EMBELLISHMENT.  265 

new  roots  may  push  freely,  and  find  food.  The  infertile 
soil  from  the  pit  should  be  thrown  away,  and  its  place 
supplied  by  mould  taken  from  the  surrounding  surface ; 
the  roots  should  have  their  natural  direction,  and  the  earth 
be  well  pressed  upon  them  ;  and  the  plants  should  be  pro- 
tected from  cattle  till  they  are  of  a  size  not  to  be  injured 
by  them. 

Our  attention  has  been  particularly  drawn  to  this  sub- 
ject, by  reading  the  report  and  the  constitution  of  the 
Bangor  Association,  termed,  the  Ornamental  Tree  Soci- 
ety, which  has  been  recently  formed,  and  whose  object 
is  the  embellishment  of  their  city  by  planting  out  forest 
trees.  The  constitution  requires,  that  "every  member 
shall  himself  set  out,  or  cause  to  be  set  out,  one  or  more 
ornamental  trees,  on  such  of  the  public  streets  or  squares 
of  the  city  as  he  may  elect" — the  kind  of  tree,  and  the 
distance  of  planting,  to  be  determined  by  the  directors. 
Accompanying  the  report,  in  the  New  England  Farmer, 
are  two  letters  from  General  Dearborn,  on  ornamental 
planting,  evincing  much  experience  and  good  taste  in  the 
matter. 

"  The  monotony  of  appearance,  which  lines  or  clumps 
of  the  same  tree  produce,  is  to  be  avoided,  and  a  pic- 
turesque and  agreeable  aspect  obtained,  by  increasing 
the  varieties  ;*  for  as  the  periods  of  their  foliation  are  so 
very  different,  as  well  as  the  tints  of  green  when  in  vege- 
tation, and  the  remarkable  autumnal  changes  quite  as  dis- 
similar, they  are  presenting  an  ever-varying,  yet  always 
pleasing  and  interesting  scene.  Besides,  we  have  so 
many  magnificent  species  of  native  trees,  which  flourish 
luxuriantly,  even  in  the  most  exposed  situations,  that  I 
have  never  been  able  to  divine,  why  one  particular  tree 
should  be  so  universally  selected,  as  shades,  or  for  orna- 
ment, not  only  around  private  dweUings,  but  for  all  pub- 
lic places.  As  well  might  all  flowers  be  excluded  from 
our  gardens  but  the  rose,  or  the  lilach,  and  all  fruits  from 
our  orchards  but  the  apple." 

"  For  your  streets  I  recommend  the  alternate  planting 

*  The  General  considers  the  planting  of  only  one  kind  of  tree  as 
evincing  a  bad  taste. 


256  ON  RURAL   EMBELLISHMENT. 

out  of  rock  maples,  elms,  white  ash,  white  maple,  bass- 
wood,  beech,  and  red,  white,  and  other  oaks. "  [We  will 
add  to  the  list  of  native  trees,  the  buttonwood,  the  tulip- 
tree  or  whitewood,  and  cucumber-tree,  (Magnolia  acu- 
minata^) for  the  city  and  village,  and  the  black  walnut, 
butternut,  and  honey  locust  for  the  country.]  "  The 
rock  maple  is  certainly  one  of  our  most  superb  trees,  and 
in  my  own  estimation  superior  to  the  elm.  Its  form  and 
foHage,  with  the  splendid  changes  of  its  autumnal  aspect, 
are  of  surpassing  beauty.  The  basswood  ( Tilia  Jlmer- 
icana)  is  the  American  linden,  or  hme,  and  much 
superior,  for  its  size,  graceful  form,  and  large  leaves,  to 
the  much  celebrated  and  favorite  European  species.  It 
is  easy  to  transplant,  and  of  rapid  growth.  The  oaks  are 
of  rapid  growth,  and  were  once  as  renowned  as  the  name  of 
England.  They  have  been  the  choice  trees  of  all  the  cel- 
ebrated nations  of  antiquity.  The  occidental  plane,  or 
American  buttonwood,  is  also  a  finer  tree  than  the  orien- 
tal variety,  which  was  so  much  admired  and  cultivated  by 
the  Asiatics  and  Romans." 

For  pubhc  grounds  and  squares,  the  General  recom- 
mends, also,  the  white  pine,  cedar,  hemlock,  spruce,  and 
we  would  add  the  fir,  the  larch,  and  a  sprinkling  of  for- 
eign trees,  as  the  Enghsh  and  Scotch  elms,  larch,  abeel, 
horse  chestnut,  mountain  ash,  &c.,  which  may  be  obtained 
at  the  nurseries.  He  recommends  the  spring  as  the  best 
season  for  transplanting  in  New  England  ;  that  the  roots 
be  taken  up  as  entire  as  possible  ;  that  the  trees  be  not 
more  than  two  inches  in  diameter  ;  that  the  tops  be  not 
cut  or  mutilated  ; — "  Do  not,"  says  he,  "  cut  off  a  sin- 
gle twig,  save  such  as  may  be  within  four  or  five  feet  of 
the  ground."  He  also  directs  that  large  and  deep  holes 
be  made  for  the  reception  of  the  trees,  and  that  these 
holes  be  filled  with  the  best  mould,  to  be  well  trodden  down 
and  watered  after  the  tree  is  planted.  In  regard  to  conif- 
erous and  other  evergreens,  General  Dearborn  recom- 
mends, that  they  be  taken  from  open  grounds — (nurseries 
are  the  best) — all  the  limbs  carefully  preserved,  and  as 
much  of  the  dirt  about  the  roots  retained  as  possible. 
^'  The  best  time,"  he   continues,  "to  transplant  all  the 


ON   RURAL   EMBELLISHMENT.  257 

evergreen  trees  is  later  than  that  for  the  deciduous,  and 
\s  just  before  they  commence  vegetation.''^  These  direc- 
tions are  all  good  ;  yet  we  would  amend,  or  rather  add 
to,  the  one  which  regards  the  time  for  transplanting  ever- 
greens. We  transplant  them  just  after  vegetation  has 
commenced — have  transplanted  in  July,  with  entire  suc- 
cess— and  our  friend,  Michael  Floy,  of  New  York,  a 
professional  nurseryman,  prefers  the  month  of  August. 
He  showed  us,  the  other  day,  several  large  firs,  which  had 
been  planted  at  that  season,  in  front  of  his  grounds  at  Har- 
lem, all  of  which  lived  and  did  well.  We  think  evergreens 
should  be  planted  ivhen  the  tree  is  groioing — as  the  foliage 
requires  a  constant  supply  of  nourishment  through  the 
roots  ;  and  if  the  functions  of  these  are  dormant,  as  they 
are  likely  to  be  when  evergreens  are  transplanted  while 
vegetation  is  at  rest,  the  foliage  is  apt  to  wither,  and  the 
plant  to  die  ;  and  the  only  danger  to  be  feared  from  trans- 
planting these  trees  at  midsummer,  is  that  which  arises 
from  excessive  evaporation.  To  guard  against  this,  as 
much  earth  should  be  lifted  with  the  roots  as  is  practica- 
ble, the  holes  for  their  reception  should  be  large  and  deep, 
filled  to  the  proper  height  for  the  roots  of  the  tree  with 
loose  mould,  and  well  saturated  with  water  ;  the  surface 
around  the  tree  should  be  well  mulched  with  litter,  and 
this  well  wet,  and  superficially  covered  with  earth,  and  the 
plants  occasionally  watered  if  the  weather  is  hot  and  dry. 

As  to  the  effect  of  planting,  upon  the  beauty  of  the 
landscape  J  Mr.  A.  J.  Downing,  in  a  well- written  article 
upon  this  subject,  justly  remarks, — 

''  Many  a  dreary  and  barren  prospect  maybe  rendered 
interesting, — many  a  natural  or  artificial  deformity  hidden, 
and  the  effects  of  almost  every  landscape  may  be  im- 
proved, simply  by  the  judicious  employment  of  trees. 
The  most  fertile  countries  would  appear  but  a  desert 
without  them,  and  the  most  picturesque  scenery  in  every 
part  of  the  globe  has  owed  to  them  its  highest  charm. 
Added  to  this,  by  the  recent  improvements  in  the  art  of 
transplanting,  the  ornamental  planter  of  the  present  day 
may  reahze,  almost  immediately,  what  was  formerly  the 
slow  and  regular  production  of  years." 
22# 


258  ON   RURAL   EMBELLISHMENT. 

As  to  the  effect  of  planting  and  gardening,  upon  the 
body  and  mind  of  those  who  engage  in  these  pursuits,  we 
offer  the  following  remarks  from  Loudon's  '  Suburban 
Gardener,' and  we  recommend  them  to  the  special  notice 
of  all  gentlemen  who  are  troubled  with  dyspeptic  or  hypo- 
chondriac affections. 

"  There  is,"  says  an  author,  "  a  great  deal  of  enjoy- 
ment to  be  derived,  from  performing  the  different  opera- 
tions of  gardening,  independently  of  the  health  resulting 
from  this  kind  of  exercise.  To  labor  for  the  sake  of  ar- 
riving at  a  result,  and  to  be  successful  in  attaining  it,  are, 
as  cause  and  effect,  attended  by  a  certain  degree  of  satis- 
faction to  the  mind,  however  simple  or  rude  the  labor 
may  be,  and  however  unimportant  the  result  obtained. 
To  be  convinced  of  this,  we  have  only  to  imagine  our- 
selves employed  in  any  labor  from  which  no  result  en- 
sues, but  that  of  fatiguing  the  body,  or  wearying  the  mind; 
the  turning  of  a  wheel,  for  example,  that  is  connected 
with  no  machinery  ;  or,  if  connected,  effects  no  useful 
purpose  ;  the  carrying  a  weight  from  one  point  to  anoth- 
er and  back  again  ;  or  the  taking  a  walk  without  any  ob- 
ject in  view,  but  the  negative  one  of  preserving  health. 
Thus  it  is  not  only  a  condition  of  our  nature,  that  in  or- 
der to  secure  health  we  must  labor  ;  but  we  must  also 
labor  in  such  a  way  as  to  produce  something  useful  or 
agreeable.  Now  of  the  different  kinds  of  useful  things 
produced  by  labor,  those  things  surely  which  are  living 
beings,  and  which  grow  and  undergo  changes  before  our 
eyes,  must  be  more  productive  of  enjoyment  than  such 
as  are  mere  brute  matter — the  kind  of  labor  and  other 
circumstances  being  the  same.  Hence,  a  man  who  plants 
a  tree,  a  hedge,  or  sows  a  grass-plot  in  his  garden,  lays  a 
more  certain  foundation  for  enjoyment,  than  he  who 
builds  a  wall,  or  lays  down  a  gravel  walk  ;  and  hence  the 
enjoyment  of  a  citizen,  whose  recreation,  at  his  suburban 
residence,  consists  in  working  in  his  garden,  must  be 
higher  in  the  scale,  than  that  of  him  who  amuses  himself 
in  the  plot  around  his  house,  with  shooting  at  a  mark,  or 
playing  at  bowls." 

A  strong  illustration  of  this  truth  lately  came  within  our 


ON  RURAL   EMBELLISHMENT.  259 

knowledge.  An  esteemed  friend,  who  had  become  wealthy, 
and  retired  from  active  business,  at  the  middle  age  of  life, 
had  become  particularly  diseased  in  body  and  in  mind. 
We  advised  him  to  recreate  himself  in  horticultural  pur- 
suits, as  an  antidote  to  both  maladies.  He  replied,  that 
he  had  no  taste,  and  could  not  acquire  a  relish,  for  these 
pursuits.  We  thought  otherwise  ;  and  as  he  was  going 
to  spend  the  summer  with  a  relative,  on  a  farm  which 
belonged  to  him,  we  presented  him  with  half  a  dozen 
trees,  asked  him  to  plant  them  on  his  farm,  and  to  report 
to  us  in  autumn,  whether  they  had  afforded  him  any 
gratification.  When  he  returned  from  his  summer  resi- 
dence, he  confessed,  with  gratitude,  that  they  had  been  to 
him  a  source  of  high  interest  and  gratification ;  that  they 
had  received  his  constant  care  and  attention  ;  that  he  had 
watched,  with  a  kind  of  paternal  feeling,  the  developement 
of  the  leaves,  and  the  growth  of  the  branches  ;  that  he 
had  examined  them  almost  daily,  sedulously  guarded  them 
from  injury,  and  watered  them  with  his  own  hand  ;  and 
that  these  cares  and  labors  afforded  pleasure  without  alloy. 
Had  our  regretted  friend  made  this  experiment  two  years 
earlier,  he  would,  in  all  probability,  be  now  numbered 
among  the  living,  and  probably  among  the  hale  and  hearty. 
But  to  return  to  our  quotations  from  Mr.  Loudon: — 
''One  of  the  greatest  of  all  the  sources  of  enjoyment 
resulting  from  the  possession  of  a  garden,"  remarks  our 
author,  ''is  the  endless  variety  which  it  produces,  either 
by  the  perpetual  progress  of  vegetation  which  is  going  for- 
ward in  it  to  maturity,  dormancy,  or  decay,  or  by  the 
almost  innumerable  kinds  of  plants  which  may  be  raised 
in  even  the  smallest  garden.  Even  the  same  trees,  grown 
in  the  same  garden,  are  undergoing  perpetual  changes 
throughout  the  year  ;  and  trees  change  also  in  every  suc- 
ceeding year,  relatively  to  that  which  is  past ;  because 
they  become  larger  and  larger  as  they  advance  in  age, 
and  acquire  more  and  more  their  characteristic  and  mature 
form."  "  Independently  of  the  variety  of  changes  result- 
ing from  the  variety  of  plants  cultivated,  every  month 
throughout  the  year  has  its  particular  operations  and  its 
products  ;  nay,  it  would  not  be  too  much  to  say,  that 


260  ON  RURAL  EMBELLISHMENT. 

during  six  months  of  the  year,  a  change  takes  place,  and 
is  perceptible,  in  the  plants  of  a  garden,  every  day  ;  and 
every  day  has  in  consequence  its  operations  and  its  prod- 
ucts." 

In  conclusion  :  A  bountiful  Providence  has  given  the 
vegetable  kingdom  for  our  sustenance,  employment,  and 
highest  intellectual  enjoyment, — and  has  scattered  these 
elements  of  happiness,  with  a  profuse  hand,  every  where 
within  our  reach.  It  is  left  for  us  to  enjoy  them  in  a 
greater  or  less  degree,  as  we  learn  to  appreciate  their 
value,  and  exert  ourselves  to  apply  them  to  their  proper 
use.  The  brute  is  content  to  satisfy  its  animal  wants. 
Man,  the  lord  of  the  creation,  should  have  a  higher  aim, 
because  he  has  higher  sources  of  enjoyment  than  the 
brute,  and  higher  duties  to  perform — he  is  the  husband- 
man appointed  to  take  care  of  and  nurture  the  great  vine- 
yard, and  to  carry  out  the  purposes  of  the  all-bountiful 
Giver. 


ADDRESS, 

PREPARED 

TO    BE    DELIVERED    BEFORE 

THE 

AGRICULTURAL  AND  HORTICULTURAL  SOCIETIES 


NEW  HAVEN  COUNTY,   CONN. 
SEPT.  25,  1839. 


For  the  following  Address, — the  last  prepared  by  the  lamented  au- 
thor,— the  publishers  are  indebted  to  the  kindness  of  his  son,  Jesse 
Buel,  Esq.,  and  the  Agricultural  and  Horticultural  Societies  of  New 
Haven.  The  subjoined  letter  will  show  the  interest  with  which  the 
reading  of  the  Address  was  listened  to  by  a  large  and  respectable  assem- 
bly, and  the  regret  felt  by  them  that  the  author  should  have  been  pre- 
vented, by  sickness,  from  delivering  it  himself 

New  Havkn,  Sept.  26,  1839. 

To  Jessk  Buel,  Esq. — Dear  Sir,  We  have  the  pleasure  of  ten- 
dering to  you  the  thanks  of  the  Agricultural  and  Horticultu- 
ral Societies  of  New  Haven,  and  of  many  other  citizens,  for  your 
excellent  Address,  which  was  impressively  read  yesterday  to  a  large 
assembly,  both  from  the  city  and  the  neighboring  towns.  We  are 
instructed  to  say  to  you,  that  the  discourse  was  heard  with  great  satisfac- 
tion and  delight,  and  that,  by  a  unanimous  vote,  a  copy  is  requested 
for  publication. 

The  sentiment  was  warmly  expressed,  that  a  copy  ought  to  be  placed 
in  every  family  in  the  State,  and  the  only  regret  manifested  by  the  au- 
dience, was,  that  the  respected  author  should  be  arrested  by  sickness  in 
his  journey,  and  that  they  were  thus  deprived  of  listening  to  one  whose 
bright  and  successful  example,  gave  such  decisive  weight  to  his  pre- 
cepts of  wisdom  and  of  real  patriotism.  It  is  made  the  duty  of  the 
Committee  also  to  inform  Judge  Buel,  that  the  Hon.  Simeon  Bald- 
win, Henry  Whitney,  and  James  Brewster,  Esqrs.,  were 
appointed  agents  to  promote  the  circulation  of  the  '  Cultivator,'  and  to 
recommend  that  useful  publication  to  the  public  favor,  and  to  a  more 
extensive  and  efficient  patronage  in  this  State. 

The  Committee  beg  leave  to  express  their  personal  satisfaction  in  the 
performance  of  the  pleasing  duty  assigned  them,  and  to  add  their 
warmest  good  wishes  for  the  restoration  to  health,  and  for  a  long  course 
of  usefulness,  to  one  who  has  proved  himself  a  real  benefactor  to  his 
country. 

On  behalf  of  the  Agricultural  and  Horticultural  Societies,  and  of 
many  other  citizens. 

S.  Baldwin, 

B.  SiLLIMAN, 

Eli  Ives, 

J.  Knight,  }  Cominittee,  SfC. 

James  Brewster, 

A.  N.  Skinner, 

Henry  Whitney,  ^ 

To  the  above.  Judge  Buel  replied,  assenting  to  the  publication  of  the 
Address 


ADDRESS 


I  APPEAR  here,  gentlemen,  by  invitation,  to  address  you 
on  the  cultivation  of  the  soil,  in  which  it  is  the  object  of 
the  associations  here  convened  to  promote  improvement. 
I  have  been  prompted,  in  the  undertaking,  rather  by  a 
desire  to  render  a  service,  than  from  a  confidence  in  my 
ahility  to  perform  one  ;  and  in  the  few  remarks  I  have  to 
offer,  shall  need  much  of  your  indulgence,  for  defect  in 
style,  and  deficiency  in  matter. 

Agriculture  and  Horticulture  are  intimately  related  to 
each  other.  They  both  depend  upon  the  soil,  and  the 
animals  and  plants  which  it  nurtures,  for  support,  for  profit, 
and  for  pleasure.  They  both  administer,  and  are  indis- 
pensable, to  our  wants  and  comforts.  They  are  governed 
in  their  operations  by  the  same  natural  laws.  Agricul- 
ture has  cognizance  of  the  farm,  which  supphes  our  prin- 
cipal wants  ;  Horticulture,  of  the  garden,  which  adminis- 
ters to  our  more  refined  appetites,  to  our  health,  and  to 
the  rational  pleasures  of  mind.  The  one  gives  us  bread 
and  meat,  and  the  materials  for  our  clothing  ;  the  other 
gives  us  the  choice  dehcacies  for  the  table,  and  multiplies 
around  us  the  charms  of  floral  beauty,  and  rural  scenery. 
Both  tend  to  beget  habits  of  useful  industry  and  sober  re- 
flection, and  to  improve  us  in  all  the  social  relations  of  life. 
It  is  befitting,  therefore,  that  institutions  designed  to  foster 
and  promote  improvements  in  these  primary  and  associate 
branches  of  labor,  should  unite  in  their  anniversary  cele- 
bration, and  in  returning  thanks  to  the  Supreme  Being, 
for  the  bounties  of  a  fruitful  season. 

Of  the  utility  of  these  celebrations,  and  exhibition  of 
the  products  of  the  farm  and  garden  which  are  made  at 
them,  I  have  no  kind  of  doubt.      They  bring  to  public 


264  ADDRESS. 

notice  whatever  is  new  and  most  valuable,  in  a  business 
which  highly  interests  us.  They  perform  the  work  of 
years,  in  diffusing  useful  knowledge  in  all  the  departments 
of  rural  labor.  They  awaken,  in  the  bosoms  of  hundreds, 
the  dormant  powers  of  the  mind,  which  otherwise  might 
have  slumbered  in  apathy.  They  excite  to  industry,  to 
emulation,  and  to  the  study  of  those  laws  which  every 
where  control  the  visible  creation,  and  which  enlighten 
and  reward  all  who  humbly  seek  and  follow  their  coun- 
sels. Nor  is  it  the  cuhivator  of  the  farm  and  garden 
alone  that  are  to  be  benefited  by  these  exhibitions.  What- 
ever tends  to  increase  and  improve  the  products  of  the 
soil,  serves  to  augment  the  common  stock,  and  enables 
the  grower  to  supply  the  market  with  more  and  better 
products,  and  to  buy  more  liberally  of  the  other  classes 
in  return.  The  merchant,  the  manufacturer,  the  mechan- 
ic, and  the  professional  man,  have  all,  therefore,  as  deep 
an  interest  in  promoting  the  improvement  of  agriculture 
and  horticulture,  as  the  farmer  and  gardener  have.  So- 
ciety is  in  some  measure  a  joint  concern,  at  least  so  far 
as  relates  to  what  are  termed  the  producing  classes  ;  the 
more  these  earn  by  their  labor,  the  greater  is  the  acces- 
sion of  substantial  wealth  to  the  community.  The  amount 
of  honey  in  a  hive,  depends  not  upon  the  number  of  bees 
which  it  contains,  but  upon  the  labor  and  skill  of  the 
working  bees.  The  farmer  virtually  provides  for  the 
other  classes,  and  is  at  the  same  time  their  principal  pa- 
tron and  customer  ;  and  although  his  labors  are  too  often 
held  to  be  low  and  menial,  by  those  who  cannot,  or  will 
not  appreciate  their  value,  his  condition  affords  the  best 
criterion  by  which  to  judge  of  the  welfare  of  those  around 
him.  No  country  can  long  flourish,  or  preserve  its  mor- 
al and  physical  health,  whose  agriculture  is  neglected  and 
degraded.  The  amount  of  a  farmer's  sales,  and  of  his 
purchases,  will  depend  upon  the  surplus  products  of  his 
farm,  and  upon  the  profits  of  his  labor.  Double  these, 
by  an  improved  system  of  husbandry,  which  I  feel  assur- 
ed can  be  done,  and  which  has  been  far  more  than  real- 
ized, in  many  old  districts  of  our  country,  and  you  will 
double  the  substantial  wealth  of  the  neighborhood,  and 


ADDRESS. 


265 


impart  corresponding  life  and  activity  to  every  other  de- 
partment of  business.  If  we  look  to  Spain,  to  Portugal, 
to  a  great  portion  of  Italy,  to  South  America,  or  any 
other  country  where  agriculture  is  neglected,  or  holds  but 
a  subordinate  rank,  we  shall  find  a  degraded  population, 
characterized  by  superstitious  ignorance,  poverty,  and 
crime.  Every  class  of  the  community,  therefore,  has  a 
deep  interest  in  promoting  the  improvement  of  the  soil  ; 
and  all  should  willingly  contribute  their  aid  towards  en- 
lightening, honoring,  and  rewarding  those  who  are  hon- 
estly employed  in  its  cultivation. 

With  regard  to  the  utility  of  Agricultural  and  Horti- 
cuhural  Societies,  much  will  depend  upon  the  objects 
which  bring  together  their  members.  U  they  associate 
for  selfish  purposes,  merely  to  monopolize  the  spoils,  and 
withdraw  whenever  they  are  disappointed  in  their  sinister 
hopes,  jealousies  and  apathy  will  ensue,  and  the  associa- 
tion will  fall,  as  many  under  like  circumstances  have  fall- 
en, without  public  loss  or  public  regret.  But  if  the  asso- 
ciation is  formed  for  mutual  improvement,  and  in  the  be- 
nevolent and  patriotic  desire  to  do  a  public  good,— to 
stimulate  and  reward  industry  and  enterprise,  however 
humble  their  condition, — and  strives,  by  concentrated  and 
persevering  efforts,  to  improve  the  condition  of  a  district, 
of  a  county,  or  a  Stale,— then  will  it  inspire  pubhc  confi- 
dence, obtain  public  support,  and  become  a  public  bles- 
sing. To  illustrate  this  last  proposition,  I  beg  to  refer  to 
some  associations  which  have  been  tried,  and  whose  la- 
bors have  been  crowned  with  palpable  and  brilliant  suc- 
cess. 

The  counties  of  Berkshire,  Essex,  and  Worcester,  in 
Massachusetts,  have  each,  for  many  years,  maintained  an 
Agricuhural  Society ;  and  they  each  distribute  ten  or 
twelve  hundred  dollars  a  year,  one  half  of  which  is  paid 
out  of  the  State  treasury,  in  prizes  to  successful  competi- 
tors in  the  various  departments  of  agricultural  and  house- 
hold labor.  It  is  said,  and  I  believe  with  truth,  that 
every  dollar  thus  expended,  has  made  a  return  of  twenty 
dollars,  in  the  increase  of  agricultural  products  which  it 
has  caused  ;  and  so  satisfied  are  the  inhabitants  of  the 
23  XIII. 


266  ADDRESS. 

benefits  of  the  expenditure,  that  an  increased  spirit  is  an- 
nually manifested,  by  all  classes,  to  maintain  and  perpet- 
uate these  nurseries  of  industry  and  improvement. 

The  Highland  Society  of  Scotland  affords  another  il- 
lustrious example  of  the  utility  of  agricultural  associations, 
when  conducted  with  a  view  to  public  improvement. 
This  society  was  organized  in  1784,  but  so  few  were  its 
members,  and  so  limited  its  means,  that  it  attracted  but 
little  public  notice,  nor  effected  any  great  improvement 
in  husbandry,  till  the  commencement  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  Yet  it  had  sown  the  good  seed  which  never 
fails,  under  proper  management,  to  yield  to  the  husband- 
man a  bountiful  harvest.  Nor  did  it  fail  in  this  case. 
The  society  now  numbers  twenty-two  hundred  members, 
embracing  most  of  the  opulent  and  influential  men  of  the 
country,  of  all  professions,  and  distributes  annually  in 
prizes,  about  seventeen  thousand  dollars.  In  no  country 
or  district  has  agriculture  made  more  rapid  strides  in  im- 
provement, than  it  has  in  Scotland,  since  the  organization 
of  this  society  ;  and  although  it  may  not  have  been  the 
only,  it  most  assuredly  has  been  a  principal  cause,  of  this 
wonderful  and  salutary  change.  Up  to  1792,  the  agri- 
culture of  Scotland,  to  adopt  the  language  of  the  Edin- 
burgh Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture,  was  "wretched 
— execrably  bad,  in  all  its  localities  !  Hardly  any  wheat 
was  attempted  to  be  grown  ;  oats  full  of  thistles  was  the 
standard  crop,  and  this  was  repeated  on  the  greater  part 
of  the  arable  land,  while  it  would  produce  twice  the  seed 
thrown  into  it ;  turnips,  as  part  of  the  rotation  of  crops, 
was  unknown,  few  potatoes  were  raised,  and  no  grass- 
seeds  or  clover  were  sown.  A  great  part  of  the  sum- 
mer was  employed,  in  the  now  fertile  shire  of  Fife,  in 
pulling  thistles  out  of  the  oats,  and  bringing  them  home 
for  the  horses,  or  mowing  the  rushes,  or  other  aquatic 
plants,  that  grew  on  the  bogs,  around  the  homestead.'' 
But  a  change  soon  came  over  the  land.  The  seed  which 
had  been  sown  by  the  Highland  Society  had  germinated, 
and  its  luxuriant  foliage  already  covered  the  soil.  In 
1815,  according  to  the  authority  I  am  quoting,  "beau- 
tiful fields  of  wheat  were  to  be  seen  ;  drilled  green  crops 


ADDRESS.  267 

every  where  abounded  ;  the  bogs  had  disappeared  ;  the 
thistles  no  longer  existed  ;"  naked  fallows  were  abolish- 
ed ;  draining  was  extensively  introduced  ;  wet  lands  were 
made  dry  ;  poor  weeping  clays  were  converted  into  tur- 
nip soils  ;  and  "whole  parishes  were  completely  trans- 
formed from  unsightly  marshes,  into  beautiful  and  rich 
wheat-fields  ;  and  where  the  plough  could  scarcely  be 
driven  for  slush  and  water,  were  heavy  crops  per  acre, 
and  heavy  weight  per  bushel."*  The  improvements  in 
Scotch  husbandry  have  continued  to  advance,  until,  ac- 
cording to  the  estimate  of  Sir  John  Sinclair,  and  Profes- 
sor Lowe,  both  high  authority, — until  the  acreable  prod- 
ucts of  her  soil  more  than  double  those  of  our  Atlantic 
States. 

The  means  adopted  by  the  Highland  Society  to  effect 
these  radical  improvements  in  Scotch  husbandry,  are  such 
as  may  be  employed  by  us  with  almost  a  certainty  of  cor- 
responding success.  "  In  the  days  of  its  youth  and  fee- 
bleness," says  the  Quarterly  Journal  I  have  just  quoted, 
"the  Highland  Society  sent  the  leaven  of  the  turnip 
husbandry  into  all  the  glens  and  straths  of  the  north,  by 
offers  of  small  prizes  to  certain  Highland  parishes,  and 
the  same  may  be  said  as  to  the  growth  of  clover  and  the 
finer  grasses.  As  it  advanced  in  strength,  as  to  numbers, 
and  to  cash,  attention  was  turned  to  premiums  for  stock  ; 
then  came  offers  of  reward  to  men  of  science  to  discover 
better  implements  and  machines,  to  diminish  friction,  and 
consequently  draught,  such  as  in  the  threshing-mill,  and 
other  parts  of  agricultural  machinery.  Still  advancing  in 
the  scale  of  intellect  and  of  science,  premiums  were 
offered  for  essays  to  bring  to  light  the  facts  connected 
with  chemistry  and  natural  philosophy  ;  and,  under  the 
auspices  of  the  society,  was  set  up  the  Quarterly  Journal 
of  Agriculture,  a  work  which  has  been  the  vehicle  of 
conveying  so  much  useful  information  to  the  agriculturist, 
that  we  humbly  venture  to  say,  it  ought  to  appear  on  the 
book-shelf  and  table  of  every  farmer's  parlor.  After 
this,  the  great  stock-shows  were  resolved  upon."     At  the 

*  Quarterly  Jour.  Ag.  for  June,  1839,  p.  70. 


268  ADDRESS. 

Glasgow  show  in  1838,  there  were  exhibited  for  prizes, 
461  neat  cattle,  121  horses,  274  sheep,  and  47  swine, 
total  903  domestic  animals,  in  634  lots.  Of  the  other 
kinds  of  competitors,  the  numbers  were  as  follows  : 


^or 

Butter, 

18 

Full  Milk  Cheese, 

15 

Skim  Milk  Cheese,       - 

6 

Wool, 

8 

Roots  and  Seeds, 

13 

Implements, 

28 
In  88  lots. 

The  number  of  persons  present  at  the  exhibition,  was 
estimated  at  over  17,000,  besides  workmen  and  official 
people  ; — not  one  in  a  thousand  of  whom  probably  left 
the  exhibition  without  carrying  home  with  him  some  newly 
acquired  knowledge  in  his  business,  or  some  new  stimulus 
to  improvement  and  industry.  Not  only  has  Scotland 
profited  by  the  labors  of  her  Agricultural  Society,  but 
Great  Britain  generally,  and  even  the  United  States  have 
been  highly  benefited  by  them.  The  information  which 
that  Society  has  promulgated,  has  been  widely  dissemi- 
nated among  us  by  our  agricultural  journals,  and  has  con- 
tributed not  a  little  to  the  improvement  of  the  agriculture 
of  our  country.  And  in  England,  which  had  been  thrown 
into  the  back-ground  by  the  superior  improvement  of 
Scotch  husbandry,  it  has,  within  the  last  year,  induced  the 
formation  of  the  English  Agricultural  Society,  on  a  broad 
and  liberal  scale,  which  promises  important  advantages 
to  English  husbandry,  and  to  agriculture  generally. 

As  evidence  of  the  utility  of  Horticultural  Societies  in 
multiplying  and  improving  the  products  of  our  gardens, 
and  in  promoting  rural  embellishments,  I  would  refer  to 
the  neighborhoods  of  Boston  and  Philadelphia,  where 
societies  of  this  kind  have  long  existed,  and  to  the  Horti- 
cultural Society  of  London.  In  the  first-named  cities, 
and  their  environs,  the  progress  of  horticultural  improve- 
ment has  been  manifestly  great.  Many  new  and  choice 
fruits,  culinary  vegetables,  and  ornamental  plants,  have 


ADDRESS.  269 

been  introduced,  culture  has  been  much  improved,  the 
markets  better  supphed,  and  prices  cheapened.  The 
London  Society,  although  its  garden  has  been  established 
but  about  twenty  years,  has  concentrated  in  it,  from  both 
continents,  and  from  the  islands  of  the  sea,  embracing 
every  clime,  more  than  five  thousand  varieties  of  edible 
fruits,  including  fourteen  hundred  varieties  of  the  apple, 
and  seven  hundred  of  the  pear,  and  an  innumerable  num- 
ber of  ornamental  plants,  many  of  them  before  unknown 
in  our  catalogues.  Its  collection  of  pears,  which  em- 
brace hundreds  of  recent  origin,  from  Flanders  and  from 
France,  have  been  already  broadly  spread  over  these 
States,  and  supply  our  dessert  with  a  succession  of  this 
delicious  fruit.  As  a  corresponding  member  of  this  So- 
ciety, I  have  participated,  and  have  enabled  others  to 
participate,  in  the  good  w^hich  it  has  been  generously  dif- 
fusing abroad.  In  1825,  and  at  subsequent  periods,  I 
have  been  supplied  liberally  Vvith  grafts  of  the  choicest 
fruits  which  it  had  collected  .- 

The  greatest  obstacles  to  Horticultural  improvement, 
are,  ignorance  of  the  relative  merits  of  dixTerent  kinds  of 
fruits  and  culinary  vegetables,  and  of  the  proper  modes 
of  cultivating  and  preparing  them  for  the  table.  The 
generality  of  country  gardens  exhibit  but  a  scanty  assort- 
ment of  vegetable  productions,  and  these  are  but  badly 
cultivated,  and  often  of  inferior  quality.  The  tendency 
of  Horticultural  exhibitions  is,  to  show  the  good  and  bad 
in  contrast,  or  rather  to  promulgate  a  knowledge  of  the 
better  sorts,  of  their  culture  and  use,  to  excite  useful 
competition,  and  to  demonstrate  the  utility  of  garden  cul- 
ture, as  a  source  of  health,  pleasure,  and  profit.  I  have 
had  many  fruits  presented  to  me,  which  the  donors  con- 
sidered of  the  first  quality,  but  which  I  found,  on  com- 
parison, to  be  of  secondary,  or  inferior  grade.  The  man 
who  has  seen  or  tasted  only  inferior  fruits,  may  well  mis- 
take them  for  good  ones.  It  is  as  easy  to  cultivate  good 
fruits  as  bad  ones  ;  and  no  one  eats  so  good  fruits  as  he 
who  cultivates  them  himself.  It  is  as  easy  to  cultivate 
the  vergaleu  as  it  is  the  choke  pear  ;  the  green  gage  as 
the  horse  plum  ;  and  yet  the  difference  between  them,  in 
23* 


270  ADDRESS. 

all  the  qualities  which  we  most  esteem,  is  incomparably 
great.  But  till  w^e  can  show  our  neighbor  better  fruits, 
he  will  continue  to  cultivate,  and  rest  content  with,  his 
choke  pear  and  horse  plum. 

With  regard  to  what  is  termed  ornamental  gardening, 
or  the  cultivation  of  flowering  shrubs  and  plants,  there  is 
an  objection,  real  or  affected,  often  made  by  very  many 
people,  on  the  ground  that  it  yields  no  profit.  If  the  great 
object  of  life  was  to  accumulate  money,  without  enjoying 
any  of  the  comforts  which  it  confers,  save  the  gratification 
of  animal  appetite,  the  objection  would  be  conclusive. 
But  we  are  endowed  with  other  and  higlier  appetites  than 
the  mere  brute  ;  and  Providence  has  every  where  sur- 
rounded us  with  suitable  objects  for  their  developement, 
and  innocent  gratification.  And  shall  we  reject  the  prof- 
fered benefaction  so  kindly  tendered  for  our  benefit,  be- 
cause it  adds  nothing  to  our  pelf  ^  And  what  is  there  in 
the  natural  creation,  better  calculated  to  soften  down  the 
rough  asperities  of  our  nature,  to  awaken  kind  feelings  to- 
wards each  other,  and  excite  reverence  and  love  for  the 
Most  High,  than  a  familiar  acquaintance  with  the  wonders 
and  beauties  of  his  vegetable  kingdom.  Did  you  ever 
know  a  misanthrope,  or  a  miser,  who  was  an  admirer  of 
flowers  ?  I  would  not  recommend  the  neglect  of  more 
important  duties,  for  the  culture  of  a  flower-garden  :  yet 
when  there  is  abihty  or  leisure,  and  these  may  be  found  to 
a  greater  or  less  extent  in  almost  every  family,  a  taste  for 
floral  beauties  should  be  inculcated  in  the  young,  not  only 
as  a  source  of  rational  pleasure,  but  as  a  salutary  precau- 
tion against  bad  companions  and  bad  habits.  The  mind 
must  be  employed,  and  must  have  recreation.  It  is  bet- 
ter to  direct  it  to  the  works  of  the  Creator,  than  to  the 
works  of  man.  Lord  Bacon  has  said  of  the  garden,  ''  It 
affords  the  purest  of  human  pleasures — the  greatest  re- 
freshment to  the  spirits  of  man — without  which,  buildings 
and  palaces  are  but  gross  handiworks." 

But  I  am  forgetting  myself.  In  my  ardor  to  commend 
Horticulture,  for  its  useful,  elevating,  and  purifying  influ- 
ence upon  the  habits  and  manners  of  society,  I  did  not 
recollect  that  I  am  addressing  the  Iiighly  polished  inhab- 


ADDRESS.  271 

itants  of  a  classic  city,*  who  have  long  since  demonstrat- 
ed, in  practice,  the  truth  of  the  lessons  1  would  inculcate. 
I  will  therefore  dismiss  this  branch  of  my  subject,  and 
turn  to  the  more  rugged,  though  not  less  important,  topic 
of  Agriculture  ;   barely  adding, — 

That  in  all  endeavors  to  improve  the  condition  of  so- 
ciety, whether  religious,  moral,  or  industrial,  individual 
efforts  and  example  can  effect  but  little  ;  and  hence,  that 
in  every  great  work  of  reform  or  improvement,  the  con- 
centrated strength  of  many  has  been  resorted  to,  and 
brought  to  a  focus,  by  means  of  associations  ;  and  that 
the  great  objects  of  society  are  not  hkely  to  be  promoted 
in  a  more  eminent  degree,  by  any,  than  by  associations 
formed  for  like  purposes  with  those  which  1  have  now  the 
honor  to  address. 

Being  a  native  of  this  State,  and  having  spent  my  early 
days  within  its  borders,  I  can  well  remember  the  farming 
practices  that  were  wont  to  prevail.  The  farm  was,  to 
use  the  commendatory  language  of  that  day,  "suitably 
divided  into  meadow,  pasture,  and  plough  land,"  and  each 
division  was  exclusively  devoted  to  its  object,  until  most 
of  tlK3  nutritious  grasses  had  ^' run  out,''''  in  the  meadow, 
and  the  plough  land  had  become  too  much  impoverished 
to  bear  a  remunerating  crop.  Many  an  acre  was  turned 
into  "  old  field, ^''  or  commons,  destitute  alike  of  natural 
or  artificial  herbage,  affording  scanty  gleanings  to  half- 
famished  cattle.  I  beg  not  to  be  misunderstood.  I  am 
describing  what  icas  a  bad  feature  in  Yankee  husbandry. 
Farming  has  no  doubt  recently  undergone  great  improve- 
ments in  Connecticut,  as  it  has  elsewhere.  Yet  on  a  fair 
comparison  with  highly-cultivated  agricultural  districts,  I 
believe  that  it  will  be  found  that  the  husbandry  of  this 
State,  in  the  main,  is  susceptible  of  great  improvement. 
The  lands  of  Connecticut  w^ere  originally  rich  and  pro- 
ductive. The  earthy  elements  remain  in  a  great  measure 
unchanged  ;  the  seasons  are  about  as  propitious  as  they 
wore  wont  to  be  ;  and  the  lessons  in  improvement  that 
liave  been  taught  elsewhere,  leave  little  reason  to  doubt, 

*  New  liaven. 


272  ADDRESS. 

that  under  proper  management,  they  may  again  be  re- 
stored to  their  original  fertihty. 

In  a  late  tour  which  I  made  through  parts  of  New  York 
and  New  Jersey,  I  found  many  evidences  of  recent  im- 
provement, and  I  doubt  not  similar  ones  abound  in  my 
native  State.  In  a  part  of  Dutchess  County,  which  I 
visited,  the  best  farms  have  been  sold,  within  my  recol- 
lection, with  improvements  and  buildings,  at  from  seven 
to  seventeen  dollars  an  acre.  They  cannot  now  be 
bought  for  one  hundred  dollars  an  acre  ;  and  one  was 
sold  last  year  at  auction,  without  buildings,  at  one  hun- 
dred and  thirty  dollars  an  acre.  Fifteen  years  ago,  a 
farm  in  western  New  York,  of  400  acres,  exhausted  by 
bad  husbandry,  was  bought  by  a  Scotch  farmer  for 
$4000.  This  farm  has  been  so. improved  by  good  hus- 
bandry, that  the  owner  was  last  year  offered  for  it 
$40,000.  He  refused  the  offer,  upon  the  ground,  that 
it  actually  netted  him  the  interest  of  ^60,000,  or  $10  50 
the  acre.  A  farm  was  pointed  out  to  me  in  New  Jer- 
sey, which  was  recently  sold  for  seven  dollars  the  acre, 
and  that  was  all  it  was  said  to  have  been  worth  in  its  then 
condition.  By  a  liberal  outlay  in  draining,  it  being  level 
and  wet  ground,  and  in  liming,  manuring,  &c.,  it  is  now 
considered  worth  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  dollars  an 
acre.  I  went  over  another  farm  which  a  few  years  ago 
was  bought  at  the  same  price,  and  which  now,  on  account 
of  the  improvements  which  have  been  made  upon  it,  is 
considered  worth  one  hundred  dollars  per  acre.  1  am 
informed  on  the  best  authority,  that  similar  cases  of  the 
rapid  increase  in  the  products  and  value  of  farms,  conse- 
quent upon  an  improved  system  of  management,  are  to 
be  found  in  Pennsylvania,  Delaware,  and  Maryland. 
Although  these  cases  are  isolated  ones,  they  nevertheless 
serve  to  show  the  practicability  of  vastly  increasing  the 
value  and  products  of  our  exhausted  lands. 

Among  the  causes  which  have  essentially  contributed 
to  the  deterioration  of  our  lands,  and  the  consequent 
depression  of  our  Agriculture,  I  consider  the  following  as 
prominent  : 

Ignorance  of  the  principles  of  Agriculture  ; 


ADDRESS.  273 

The  want  of  a  sufficient  outlay  in  the  management  of 
our  farms  ;  and 

The  low  estimation  in  which  the  employment  has  been 
held  by  all  classes,  including  farmers  themselves. 

Agriculture  has  too  generally  been  considered  a  busi- 
ness requiring  mere  physical  power,  with  which  the  prin- 
ciples of  natural  science  had  little  or  nothing  to  do.  To 
plough,  sow,  and  gather  the  crop,  has  been  the  general 
routine  of  farming  operations,  regardless  of  the  poverty 
which  our  practice  was  inflicting  upon  the  soil  and  upon 
our  children.  Like  the  reckless  heir  of  wealth,  we  found 
ourselves  in  possession  of  a  treasure  ;  and  without  inquir- 
ing for  what  purpose  it  came  into  our  hands,  or  realizing 
our  obligations  to  husband  and  preserve  it,  for  others,  we 
have  squandered  it  lavishly,  through  our  ignorance  or  our 
folly.  True,  we  have  been  occasionally  admonished  of 
our  error,  by  the  schoolmen  ;  who,  wrapped  in  abstract 
science,  and  knowing  little  practically  of  its  application 
to  husbandry,  have  as  often  tended  to  confuse  and  mysti- 
fy, as  to  enlighten  and  instruct.  Hence  the  prejudice 
which  has  arisen,  against  book-farming.  But  science  and 
art  are  now  uniting  their  labors,  and  are  deriving  mutual  aid 
from  each  other,  on  the  farm,  as  they  have  for  some  time 
been  doing  in  the  manufactory  and  in  the  shop  of  the  ar- 
tisan. A  new  era  is  dawning  upon  the  vision  of  the  far- 
mer ;  a  new  light  is  illuming  his  path,  and  a  new  interest 
and  new  pleasures  are  urging  him  on  to  improvement. 
He  begins  to  study  the  laws  which  Providence  has  or- 
dained for  the  government  of  improved  culture,  and  he 
finds,  in  their  application  to  his  labors,  the  means  of  in- 
creasing profits  and  high  intellectual  enjoyment.  And 
the  more  he  studies  and  is  guided  by  these  laws,  the  more 
does  he  become  satisfied  of  former  errors,  and  of  his 
comparatively  limited  sphere  of  usefulness.  Science  is 
probably  capable  of  rendering  more  important  services  to 
husbandry  than  to  any  other  branch  of  labor,  and  presents 
a  wider  field  of  useful  study  to  the  cultivator  of  the  soil, 
than  to  any  other  class  of  society. 

The  deficiency  in  farming  capital,  or  rather  the  stin- 
giness with  which  capital  is  employed  in  improving  and 


274  ADDRESS. 

maintaining  the  condition  of  our  lands,  is  another  cause 
of  declension  in  the  profits  and  character  of  our  Agricul- 
ture. The  farmer  is  too  prone  to  invest  his  surplus 
means  in  some  new  business,  or  in  adding  to  his  acres, 
instead  of  applying  them  to  increase  the  profits  of  his  la- 
bor and  the  products  of  his  farm.  He  either  works  more 
land  than  he  can  work  well  and  profitably,  or  he  diverts 
to  other  objects  the  means  which  would  yield  a  better 
return  if  apphed  to  the  improvement  of  the  farm.  He  is 
apt  to  consider  twenty  or  thirty  dollars  an  enormous  and 
wasteful  outlay  upon  an  acre  of  land,,  or  upon  a  choice 
animal  ;  and  yet  the  interest  of  this  outlay  will  be  ten 
times  paid  by  the  increase  of  crop  or  the  increase  of  the 
animal  ;  and  in  most  cases  the  principal  also  will  be  re- 
turned to  him  in  the  course  of  two  or  three  years.  Many 
of  the  most  thriving  farmers  in  southern  New  York,  New 
Jersey,  and  Pennsylvania,  make  a  quadrennial  expenditure 
of  twenty  dollars  or  more  to  manure  an  acre  ;  and  it  has 
become  a  maxim  with  them,  that  the  more  the  outlay  for 
manure,  the  greater  the  net  profit  of  their  lands.  But 
it  is  not  the  outlay  for  manure  alone,  that  demands  a  lib- 
eral expenditure  of  capital.  Good  seed,  good  farm-stock, 
and  good  implements,  are  all  essential  to  the  economy  of 
labor,  and  to  neat  and  profitable  farming.  And  I  think 
it  will  appear  from  the  cases  I  have  quoted,  that  in  many 
locations,  capital  may  be  very  advantageously  employed, 
in  reclaiming  wet  and  marshy  grounds,  generally  rich  and 
the  most  productive  when  laid  dry. 

When  our  cattle  grow  lean,  and  threaten  to  disappoint 
our  hopes  of  profit,  we  do  not  hesitate  to  impute  the  evil 
to  the  want  of  food,  or  to  inattention  in  the  herdsman. 
And  if  we  are  prudent  managers,  we  at  once  graduate  our 
stock  to  our  food,  knowing  that  one  well-fed  animal  is  of 
more  value  in  the  market,  than  two  animals  that  carry  but 
skin  and  bones,  and  take  care  that  the  food  is  properly 
fed  out.  When  our  crops  become  lean,  we  need  not 
hesitate  to  ascribe  the  decrease  in  product  to  like  causes 
— want  of  food,  or  want  of  attention  in  the  farmer  ;  and 
prudence  and  profit  in  like  manner  require,  that  our  crops, 
like  our  animals,  should  be  limited  to  the  food  and  labor 


ADDRESS.  276 

which  we  have  to  bestow  upon  them.  In  other  words, 
an  acre  well  manured  and  well  worked,  will  be  found  to 
be  more  profitable,  than  four  poor  acres  badly  worked. 

I  may  be  here  asked,  whence  are  to  be  obtained 
the  vast  supplies  of  manure  requisite  to  manure  our  old 
lands  ?  I  answer,  from  a  multiplicity  of  sources  around 
us,  from  every  animal  and  vegetable  substance  within  our 
reach.  Nothing  that  has  once  been  part  of  an  animal  or 
a  vegetable,  but  can  be  converted  into  corn,  grass,  and 
roots.  I  think  I  may  assume  as  facts,  that  upon  an  aver- 
age, not  half  the  manure  is  saved  upon  our  farms  that 
might  be,  and  that  this  moiety  is  half  lost  before  it  is  ap- 
plied to  the  soil.  Every  horse,  ox,  or  cow,  wintered  upon 
the  farm,  if  well  fed,  and  littered  with  the  straw,  stalks, 
&c.,  of  the  crop,  should  make  from  six  to  ten  cords  of 
good  manure.  Dr.  Coventry,  late  Professor  of  Agricul- 
ture at  Edinburgh,  estimated  that  the  straw  of  an  ordinary 
acre  of  grain,  computed  at  21  cwt.,  may  be  converted 
by  the  urine  and  liquids  of  the  stables  and  cattle-yards, 
into  three  and  a  half  tons  of  manure  ;  that  meadows  which* 
cut  one  and  a  half  tons  of  hay  will  give  four  tons  of  ma- 
nure ;  clover,  the  first  year,  six  tons,  and  the  second  year, 
five  and  a  half  tons  per  acre  ;  and  that  with  the  extraneous 
substances  which  may,  with  due  care,  be  collected  with- 
out expense  from  the  roads,  the  ditches,  the  ponds,  and 
from  refuse  of  every  kind  about  the  house  and  premises, 
the  acreable  amount  should  be  amply  sufficient  for  a  full 
supply  of  manure  once  during  every  course  of  the  four- 
year  system  of  husbandry.  Arthur  Young,  with  6  horses, 
4  cows,  and  9  hogs,  which  consumed  16  loads  of  hay  and 
29  loads  of  straw,  obtained  118  loads  of  manure,  36 
bushels  to  each  ;  and  from  45  fatting  oxen,  well  fed  and 
littered,  600  tons  of  rotten  manure.  But  an  American 
lawyer,*  and  an  excellent  practical  farmer  withal,  has 
gone  beyond  these  estimates.  I  visited,  a  few  weeks  ago, 
his  farm,  which  lies  upon  the  sea-shore.  It  consists  of 
about  200  acres,  most  of  which  was  in  a  course  of  crops. 
The  crops  of  the  season  had  all  received  an  ample  supply 

*  W.  A.  Seeley,  Esq.,  of  Staten  Island. 


276  ADDRESS. 

of  manure,  as  their  appearance  indicated  ;  and  yet  I  was 
shown  masses  of  well-prepared  compost,  in  reserve,  con- 
sisting of  yard  manure,  peat  ashes,  peat  earth,  sea-weed, 
and  fish — estimated  at  twenty-five  hundred  loads — all 
produced  upon  his  oicn  farm. 

The  third  obstacle  to  Agricultural  improvement,  which 
I  propose  to  notice,  is  the  subordinate  rank  to  which  this 
employment  has  been  consigned,  and  to  which  the  farmers 
themselves  have  contributed,  by  a  want  of  respect  for 
themselves  and  respect  for  their  vocation.  The  whole- 
some habits  of  society  have  been  so  broken  up,  by  the 
civil  and  political  convulsions  of  the  age,  and  the  inordi- 
nate thirst  for  acquiring  wealth  and  fashionable  conse- 
quence, through  mercantile  and  other  speculations,  that 
honest  productive  labor  has  been  thrown  entirely  into  the 
back-ground,  and  considered  not  only  ungenteel,  but  me- 
nial and  servile.  Yet  I  venture  to  lay  down  this  proposition, 
that  he  who  provides  for  the  wants  and  comforts  of  him- 
self and  family,  and  renders  some  service  to  society  at 
'large,  by  his  mental  and  physical  industry,  performs  one 
of  the  high  duties  of  life  ;  and  will  ultimately  be  rewarded 
in  the  conscious  rectitude  of  his  life,  by  a  greater  measure 
of  substantial  happiness,  than  he  who  makes  millions  by 
fraud  and  speculation,  to  be  squandered  in  extravagance 
or  wasted  in  folly,  by  his  children  or  grandchildren.  The 
revolutions  which  are  constantly  taking  place  in  families, 
sufficiently  admonish  us,  that  it  is  not  the  wealth  we  leave 
to  our  children,  but  the  industrial  and  moral  habits  in 
which  we  educate  them,  that  secures  to  them  worldly 
prosperity,  and  the  treasure  of  an  approving  conscience. 

The  farmers,  I  have  remarked,  share  in  the  errors  of 
the  day.  Not  content  with  the  gains  which  are  ever  the 
reward  of  prudent  industry,  and  which  might  be  greatly 
increased  by  the  culture  of  the  mind  ;  nor  content  with 
one  of  the  most  independent  conditions  in  society,  hun- 
dreds and  thousands  of  them  seek  other  and  new  employ- 
ments, and  some  of  truly  menial  character,  to  get  rid  of 
labor,  the  greatest  blessing  to  man,  and  to  raise  themselves 
in  the  imaginary  scale  of  fashionable  society.  And  if 
they  cannot  participate,    themselves,   in    this   imaginary 


ADDRESS.  277 

greatness,  (and  it  is  seldom  any  thing  more  than  imagina- 
ry,) they  are  anxious  to  inflict  the  evil  upon  their  posterity, 
— to  rear  their  sons  to  the  law,  the  rail-road  to  office,  to 
political  power,  and  turmoil  ;  to  make  them  merchants,  a 
useful,  but  greatly  ov^er-stocked  business,  or  to  place  them 
in  some  other  genteel  employment,  which  shall  exempt 
them  from  the  toils  of  labor,  the  salt  that  best  preserves 
from  moral  corruption. 

Mistaken  men  !  What  class  in  society  have  within 
their  reach  so  many  of  the  elements  of  human  enjoyments 
— so  many  facilities  for  dispensing  benefits  to  others, 
one  of  the  first  duties  and  richest  pleasures  of  life — as  the 
independent  tillers  of  the  soil  ?  "  The  farmer,"  says 
Franklin,  "  has  no  need  of  popular  favor  ;  the  success 
of  his  crops  depends  only  on  the  blessing  of  God  upon 
his  honest  industry."  If  discreetly  conducted  on  the  im- 
proved principles  of  husbandry.  Agriculture  offers  the  cer- 
tain means  of  acquiring  wealth,  and  as  rapidly  as  is  con- 
sistent with  the  pure  enjoyments  of  life,  or  with  the  good 
order  and  prosperous  condition  of  society.  Agriculture 
is  the  golden  mean,  secure  alike  from  the  temptations  of 
mushroom  opulence,  and  the  craven  sycophancy  and  de- 
pendance  of  poverty.  "  Give  me  neither  poverty  nor 
riches,"  was  the  prayer  of  the  wise  man  of  Scripture, 
"lest,"  he  added,  "  I  be  full  and  deny  thee,  and  say,  who 
is  the  Lord  ?  or  lest  I  be  poor,  and  steal,  and  take  the 
name  of  my  God  in  vain." 

When  we  consider  that  Agriculture  is  the  great  business 
of  the  nation — of  mankind  ;  that  its  successful  prosecu- 
tion depends  upon  a  knowledge  in  the  cultivators  of  the 
soil,  of  the  principles  of  natural  science, — and  that  our 
Agriculture  stands  in  special  need  of  this  auxiliary  aid, — 
we  cannot  withhold  our  surprise  and  regret,  that  we  have 
not  long  since  established  professional  schools,  in  which 
our  youth,  or  such  of  them  as  are  designed  to  manage  this 
branch  of  national  labor,  might  be  taught,  simultaneously, 
the  principles  and  practice  of  their  future  business  of  life, 
and  on  which,  more  than  any  other  branch  of  business, 
the  fortunes  of  our  country,  moral,  political,  and  national, 
essentially  depend.  We  require  an  initiatory  study  of 
24  XIII. 


278  ADDRESS. 

years  in  the  principles  of  law  and  medicine,  before  we 
permit  the  pupil  to  practise  in  these  professions.  We 
require  a  like  preliminary  study  in  our  military  and  naval 
schools,  in  the  sciences  of  war  and  navigation,  ere  the 
student  is  deemed  qualified  to  command.  And  yet,  in 
Agriculture,  by  which,  under  the  blessing  of  Providence, 
we  virtually  "  Hve,  and  move,  and  have  our  being,"  and 
which  truly  embraces  a  wider  range  of  useful  science  than 
either  law,  medicine,  war,  or  navigation,  we  have  no 
schools,  we  give  no  instruction,  we  bestow  no  govern- 
mental patronage.  Scientific  knowledge  is  deemed  indis- 
pensable in  many  minor  employments  of  life  ;  but  in  this 
great  business,  in  which  its  influence  would  be  most  potent 
and  useful,  we  consider  it,  judging  from  our  practice,  of 
less  consequence  than  the  fictions  of  the  noveHst.  We 
regard  mind  as  the  efficient  power  in  most  other  pursuits  ; 
while  we  forget,  that  in  Agriculture,  it  is  the  Archimedean 
lever,  which,  though  it  does  not  7nove^  tends  to  fill  a  world 
with  plenty,  with  moral  health,  and  human  happiness. 
Can  it  excite  surprise,  that  under  these  circumstances  of 
gross  neglect.  Agriculture  should  have  become  among  us, 
in  popular  estimation,  a  clownish  and  ignoble  employ- 
ment } 

In  the  absence  of  Agricultural  professional  schools, 
could  we  not  do  much  to  enlighten  and  raise  the  charac- 
ter of  American  husbandry,  by  making  its  principles  a 
branch  of  study  in  our  district  schools  ?  This  knowledge 
would  seldom  come  amiss,  and  it  would  often  prove  a 
ready  help  under  misfortune,  to  those  who  had  failed  in 
other  business.  What  man  is  there,  who  may  not  ex- 
pect, at  some  time  of  life,  to  profit  directly  by  a  knowl- 
edge of  these  principles  ?  Who  does  not  hope  to  become 
the  owner,  or  cultivator,  of  a  garden,  or  a  farm  ?  And 
what  man,  enjoying  the  blessing  of  health,  would  be  at  a 
loss  for  the  means  of  an  honest  livelihood,  whose  mind 
had  been  early  imbued  with  the  philosophy  of  rural  cul- 
ture— and  who  would  rather  work  than  beg  .'' 

An  early  acquaintance  with  natural  science  is  calculated 
to  beget  a  taste  for  rural  life  and  rural  labors,  as  a  source 
of  pleasure,  profit,  and  honor.     It  will  stimulate  to  the 


ADDRESS.  279 

improvement  of  the  mind, — to  elevate  and  to  purify  it, — 
to  self-respect,  to  moral  deportment.  And  it  will  tend 
to  deter  from  the  formation  of  bad  habits,  which  steal 
upon  the  ignorant  and  the  idle  unawares,  and  which  con- 
sign thousands  of  young  men  to  poverty  and  disgrace,  if 
not  to  premature  graves.  A  knowledge  of  these  princi- 
ples, to  a  very  useful  extent,  can  be  acquired  with  as 
much  facihty  in  the  school,  or  upon  the  farm,  as  other 
branches  of  learning.  Why,  then,  shall  they  not  be 
taught  ?  Why  shall  we  withhold  from  our  Agricultural 
population  that  knowledge  which  is  so  indispensable  to 
their  profit,  to  their  independence,  and  to  their  correct 
bearing  as  freemen  ?  Why,  while  we  boast  of  our  supe- 
rior privileges,  keep  in  comparative  ignorance  of  their 
business,  that  class  of  our  citizens  who  are  truly  the  con- 
servators of  our  freedom  ?  I  know  of  but  one  objection, 
— the  want  of  teachers.  A  few  years  ago,  civil  engineers 
were  not  to  be  found  among  us.  The  demand  for  them 
created  a  supply.  We  have  demonstrated  that  we  have 
the  materials  for  civil  engineers,  and  that  we  can  work 
them  up.  We  have  materials  for  teachers  of  Agricultural 
science,  which  we  can  also  work  up.  Demand  will  al- 
ways insure  a  supply. 

The  enumeration  of  the  foregoing  obstacles  to  Agricul- 
tural improvement,  sufficiently  indicates  the  means  which 
will  be  efficient  in  removing  them.  The  means  consist, 
so  far  as  I  now  propose  to  notice  them — 

1.  In  giving  a  professional  education  to  the  young  far- 
mer, which  shall  embrace  the  principles  and  the  practice 
of  the  business  which  he  is  designed  to  follow  in  life  ;  and, 

2.  In  diffusing,  more  extensively,  among  those  who 
have  completed  their  juvenile  studies,  and  are  better  fitted 
to  profit  by  the  lessons  of  wisdom  and  experience,  a 
knowledge  of  the  same  principles,  and  of  the  best  modes 
of  practice  which  these  principles  inculcate,  and  which 
experience  has  proved  to  be  sound. 

We  have  professional  schools  in  almost  every  business 
of  life,  except  in  the  cultivation  of  the  soil,  one  of  the 
most  important  and  essential  of  them  all,  and  one  em- 
bracing a  larger  scope  of  useful  study  in  natural  science, 


280  ADDRESS. 

and  In  usefulness  to  the  temporal  wants  of  the  human 
family,  than  any  other.  The  policy  of  monarchs,  and  of 
privileged  orders,  has  been  to  repress  intelligence  in  the 
Agricultural  mass,  in  order  to  keep  them  in  a  subordinate 
station.  But  neither  the  policy  nor  the  practice  should 
be  countenanced  by  us.  Our  Agriculturists  are  our 
privileged  class,  if  we  have  such.  They  are  our  sover- 
eigns, because,  from  their  superior  numbers,  they  must 
ever  control  our  pohtical  destinies,  for  good  or  for  evil. 
And  the  more  intelligent  and  independent  we  can  render 
them,  the  more  safe  we  make  our  country  from  the  con- 
vulsions of  internal  feuds,  and  the  danger  of  foreign  war. 
I  put  the  question  to  fathers — Would  you  esteem  that 
son  less,  or  think  him  less  likely  to  fulfil  the  great  duties 
of  life,  who  had  been  educated  in  a  professional  school 
of  Agriculture,  with  all  the  high  qualifications  which  it 
would  confer  for  pubhc  and  domestic  usefulness,  than  him 
who  had  been  educated  for  the  counter,  the  bar,  or  other 
high  professional  callings  ?  On  which  could  you  best 
rely  for  support  and  comfort  in  the  decline  of  life  ?  Nay, 
I  will  venture  to  carry  the  appeal  further — to  the  dis- 
criminating judgement  of  the  unmarried  lady — Would  you 
reject,  as  a  partner  for  life,  the  student  of  such  a  college, 
coming  forth  with  a  sound  mind,  deeply  imbued  with 
useful  knowledge,  and  a  hale  constitution,  invigorated  by 
manly  exercise,  whose  cares  and  affections  were  likely 
to  be  concentrated  upon  home  and  country,  and  whose 
precepts  and  examples  would  tend  to  diffuse  industry, 
prosperity,  and  rural  happiness  around  him  ?  The  fa- 
ther's response  would  be,  I  think,  an  unhesitating  no,  to 
the  first  question  ;  and  the  lady's,  after  due  deliberation, 
I  verily  suspect,  would  be  a  half  articulate  amen  !  I 
pretend  not  to  the  spirit  of  prophecy,  yet  I  venture  to 
predict,  that  many  who  now  hear  me,  will  live  to  see  pro- 
fessional schools  of  Agriculture  established  in  our  land,  to 
see  their  utility  extolled,  and  to  be  induced  to  consider 
them  the  best  nurseries  for  republican  virtues,  and  the 
surest  guaranty  for  the  perpetuity  of  our  liberties.  They 
should  be  established — they  will  be  established — and  the 
sooner  they  are  established,  the  better  for  our  country. 


ADDRESS.  281 

To  those  who  have  passed  to  manhood,  and  who  have 
made  up  their  minds,  from  necessity  or  from  choice,  to 
till  the  ground,  the  means  of  improvement — of  studying 
the  principles  of  their  business,  and  of  becoming  acquaint- 
ed with  the  most  approved  and  modern  practices  in  hus- 
bandry— the  opportunities  of  acquiring  useful  knowledge, 
are  abundant  and  cheap.  One  of  these  means,  and  a 
valuable  one,  is  proffered  him  through  the  exhibitions  and 
publications  of  these  societies.  Another  is  the  perusal  of 
books  upon  Agriculture  and  rural  economy,  which  should 
form  a  part  of  social  and  rural  hbraries.  And  another 
facility  of  acquiring  this  useful  knowledge,  is  afforded  by 
the  Agricultural  periodicals  of  our  country,  which,  besides 
containing  much  that  is  instructive  in  the  philosophy  of 
farming,  are  a  record  of  the  best  modes  of  practice,  and 
of  much  that  is  new  and  important,  in  the  various  depart- 
ments of  rural  and  household  labor.  A  volume  of  the 
Cultivator,  of  which  1  can  speak  with  accuracy,  contains 
about  as  much  matter  as  five  or  six  volumes  of  the  popu- 
lar novels  of  the  day,  and  twice  as  much  as  four  numbers 
of  our  literary  quarterly  journals.  The  price  of  the  Cul- 
tivator is  one  dollar  per  annum.  I  verily  think,  that  if 
the  farmer  would  divide  his  patronage  between  political 
and  Agricultural  journals,  he  would  be  a  manifest  gainer, 
in  his  fortune  and  in  his  family — would  be  more  happy  in 
his  business,  and  domestic  in  his  habits — a  better  mana- 
ger, and  a  more  useful  citizen. 

Time  will  not  permit  me  to  go  into  the  details  of  mod- 
ern improvements  in  husbandry.  These  improvements 
are  great,  and  afford  the  brightest  hopes  to  the  philan- 
thropist and  the  patriot.  No  one  who  can  carry  back  his 
memory  forty  years,  can  withhold  his  wonder  at  the  as- 
tonishing improvements  which  have  in  that  time  been 
made  in  the  manufacturing  and  mechanic  arts,  by  reason 
of  the  aids  of  science  ;  and  those  who  can  scan  the  future, 
will  have  no  less  reason  to  rejoice,  in  the  anticipated  ad- 
vantages which  are  in  prospect,  from  an  improved  culture 
of  the  mind  and  the  soil,  consequent  upon  a  better  system 
of  education  to  the  agricultural  population,  and  the  gen- 
24* 


282  ADDRESS. 

eral  diffusion  of  useful  knowledge,  which  is  likely  to  re- 
sult from  it. 

I  will  merely  further  remark  to  the  farmer,  that  if  he 
would  prosper  in  his  business,  he  should  study,  practise, 
and  adopt,  the  better  system  of  husbandry  which  is  abroad 
in  the  land,  and  which  has  already  greatly  profited  thou- 
sands, so  far  as  his  soil  and  circumstances  will  permit  ; 
that  he  should  drain  his  wet  lands,  economize  his  manures, 
and  apply  them  with  judgement  ;  cultivate  well,  what  he 
does  cultivate  ;  alternate  his  crops  ;  extend  his  root 
culture  ;  increase  and  improve  his  stock,  as  the  products 
of  his  farm  will  permit ;  and  substitute  fallow  crops  for 
naked  fallows. 

In  conclusion,  gentlemen,  permit  me  to  express  my 
hearty  wish,  that  success  and  honor  may  crown  your  ef- 
forts to  improve  the  condition  of  your  country,  industrial 
and  moral,  associate  benefits  almost  as  intimately  con- 
nected as  cause  and  effect ;  and  that  you  may  long  live 
to  enjoy  the  blessings  which  are  promised  to  him  who 
truly  loves  his  neighbor,  and  reveres  and  worships  his  God. 


APPENDIX. 


COLLECTIONS    OF    FACTS. 

MATHEMATICS  AND  PHYSICS. 

If  the  square  of  the  diameter  of  a  circle  be  multiplied 
by  .7854,  the  product  is  the  area.  If  the  diameter  of  a 
sphere  be  cubed  and  multiplied  by  .6236,  the  product  is 
the  solidity  ;  and  the  square  of  the  diameter,  multiplied  by 
3.14159j  is  the  surface  of  the  sphere. 

To  find  the  contents  of  a  cask,  add  double  the  square 
of  the  bung  diameter  to  the  square  of  the  head  diameter, 
and  multiply  this  sum  by  the  head  of  the  cask  ;  then  divide 
the  product  by  1,077  for  ale  gallons  of  280  cubic  inches 
each,  or  by  882  for  wine  gallons  of  231  cubic  inches  each. 

Quincunx  is  one  at  each  of  four  corners,  and  one  in  the 
middle,  thus,  :  •  : 

The  convexity  of  the  earth  interposes  to  prevent  the 
sight  of  distant  bodies.  Thus,  at  600  yards,  one  inch 
would  be  concealed,  or  an  object  one  inch  high  would  not 
be  seen  in  a  straight  line  ;  at  900  yards,  two  inches  ;  at 
1,400  yards,  five  inches  ;  at  one  mile,  eight  inches  ;  three 
miles,  six  feet ,  four  miles,  ten  feet  ;  five  miles,  sixteen 
feet  ;  six  miles,  twenty-four  feet  ;  ten  miles,  sixty-six  feet  ; 
twelve  miles,  ninety-five  feet  ;  thirteen  miles,  one  hundred 
and  twelve  feet,  and  fourteen  miles,  one  hundred  and  thir- 
ty feet. 

The  mechanical  powers  may  be  reduced  to  three,  but  they 
are  usually  expressed  as  six — the  lever,  the  wheel  and  axle, 
the  pulley,  the  inclined  plane,  the  screw,  and  the  wedge. 

In  a  single  moveable  pulley,  the  power  gained  is  double. 
In  a  continued  combination,  the  power  is  twice  the  num- 
ber of  pulleys,  less  1. 

In  levers,  the  power  is  reciprocally  as  the  lengths  are 
each  side  of  the  fulcrum  or  centre  of  motion,  as  illustrated 
in  the  steelyard. 


284  APPENDIX. 

The  power  gained  in  the  wheel  and  axle  is  as  the  radius 
of  the  wheel  to  that  of  the  axle. 

The  power  gained  by  an  inclined  plane  is  as  the  length 
to  the  height. 

The  power  of  the  wedge  is  generally  as  the  length  to 
the  thickness  of  the  back. 

The  power  of  the  screw  is  as  the  circumference  to  the 
distance  of  the  thread,  or  as  6.2832  to  that  distance. 

Resistance  is  an  affair  of  experiment,  sometimes  a  third, 
and  at  other  times  less. 

The  friction  of  cylinders  or  wheels  is  as  the  pressure, 
and  inversely  as  the  diameter. 

The  least  friction  is  when  polished  iron  moves  on  brass. 

The  area  of  a  circle  is  the  product  of  the  diameter  and 
circumference,  divided  by  4. 

A  fall  of  one  tenth  of  an  inch  per  mile,  will  produce  a 
motion  in  rivers.  The  greatest  velocity  is  at  the  surface 
and  in  the  middle,  and  the  least  at  the  bottom  and  sides. 
But  as  the  velocity  increases,  the  action  on  the  sides  and 
bottom  increases  also. 

Eclipses  return  in  the  very  same  order  every  18  years 
and  1 1  days,  supposing  four  leap  years  in  the  interval,  and 
if  five,  then  every  10  days.  Other  cycles  of  motion,  how- 
ever, vary  the  phenomenon  or  measure.  The  moon's  shad- 
ow is  less  than  170  miles  broad  ;  but  the  eclipse,  in  de- 
gree, for  2,000  miles. 

A  pump  ten  feet  above  a  well,  with  seven  inches  bore, 
will  discharge  70  gallons  a  minute  ;  and  at  30  feet  4  inches, 
23  gallons. 

The  specific  gravity  of  water  being  1.000,  that  of  al- 
cohol, pure,  is  0.829  ;  beer,  1.034  ;  cider,  1.018  ;  milk, 
1.032;  linseed  oil,  0,94;  vinegar,  1.025;  sea-water, 
1.026;  ox  bone,  1,666;  brass,  7,824;  brick,  2,;  cork, 
0,24;  goldf  19.2587;  granite,  2.728  ;  bar  iron,  7.68;  lead, 
11,352;  lignum-vitae,  1,33;  mahogany,  1,06;  marble, 
2.716  ;  mercury,  13.58  ;  oak,  1.17  ;  platina,  20.722  ;  sil- 
ver, 10.474;  clay-slate,  2.67;  tin,  10.717,  limestone, 
1.386  ;  elm,  0.671  ;  honey,  1.45. —  Treasury  of  Knowledge. 

MEASURES    OF    LENGTH. 

Measures  of  length  are  the  distance  of  one  object  from 
another,  according  to  some  agreed  standard. 

A  line  is  the  twelfth  of  an  inch,  and  the  144th  of  a  foot. 


COLLECTIONS    OF   FACTS. 


2S5 


A  geometrical  pace  is  4.4  feet  English  ;  and  an  English 
mile  contains  1,200  paces,  or  1,760  yards,  or  5,280  feet. 

A  Scotch  mile  contains  1 ,500  paces  ;  a  German  mile 
4,000  ;  a  Swedish  and  Danish  mile  5,000  ;  the  Russian 
mile  750. 

A  hand,  used  in  measuring  the  height  of  horses,  is  4 
inches. 

A  surveyor's  chain  is  4  poles,  or  66  feet,  divided  into 
100  links  of  7.92  inches.  A  square  chain  is  16  poles,  and 
10  square  chains  are  an  acre.  640  square  acres  are  a 
square  mile  ;  and  4,840  square  yards  are  an  acre,  69.58 
yards  each  way. 

The  Irish  acre  is  7,840  square  yards. 

The  Scotch  acre  is  1.27  English. 

A  French  arpent  is  f  of  an  English  acre. 

121  Irish  acres  are  equal  to  196  English. 

48  Scotch  acres  are  equal  to  61  English. 

11  Irish  miles  are  equal  to  14  English. 

80  Scotch  miles  are  equal  to  91  English. 

A  sea  league  is  3.4536  miles,  or  the  20th  of  a  degree. 
6,078  feet  are  a  sea  mile. 

A  degree  at  the  equator  is  365,101  feet,  or  69.148  miles, 
or  69if  nearly.  In  latitude  66°  20',  Maupertuis  meas- 
ured a  degree  of  latitude,  in  1737,  and  made  it  69.403  ; 
and  Swanberg,  in  1803,  made  it  69.292,  At  the  equator, 
in  1744,  four  astronomers  made  it  68.732  ;  and  Lambton,  in 
1803,  latitude  12°,  68.743.  Mudge,  in  England,  made  it 
69.148.  Cassini,  in  France,  in  1718  and  1740,  made  it 
69.12,  and  Biot,  68.769  ;  while  a  recent  measure  in  Spain, 
makes  it  but  68.63,  which  is  less  than  at  the  equator,  and 
contradicts  all  the  others,  proving  the  earth  to  be  a  prolate 
spheroid,  which  v/as  the  opinion  of  Cassini,  Bernouilli, 
Euler,  and  others,  while  it  has  more  generally  been  re- 
garded as  an  oblate  spheroid. 

Degrees  of  longitude  are  to  each  other  in  length,  as  the 
cosines  of  their  latitudes.  For  every  10°  they  are  as  fol- 
lows : — 


Equator, 69.2 

10°        68.15 

20°        65.27 

30°        59.93 

40°        53.1 


50°  44.48 

55°  39.69 

60°  34.6 

70°  23.67 

80°  12.02 


The  pendulum  which  vibrates  seconds,  39.1393  inches 


286 


APPENDIX, 


at  London,  is  the  standard  for  the  British  measures.    One 
mile  is  equal  to  1,618.833  such  pendulums. 


WEIGHTS. 


The  standard  of  weights,  is,  the  cubic  inch  of  distilled 
water,  weighing  253.458  Troy  grains  ;  the  Troy  pound, 
5,760  grains,  or  22.8157  inches.  The  same  standard  of 
7,000  Troy  grains,  makes  the  pound  avoirdupois,  27.7274 
cubic  inches  ;  ten  of  which,  or  277.274,  being  the  impe- 
rial gallon,  or  a  quart  69.32  ;  and  a  gill  of  five  ounces  of 
water,  equal  to  8.664. 

The  American  quintal  is  100  pounds. 

The  weight  of  a  cubic  inch  of  distilled  water,  in  a  vac- 
uum, is  252.722  grains,  and  in  air,  is  252.453  grains. 

The  Turkish  pound  is  7,578  grains  ;  the  Danish,  6,941  ; 
the  Irish,  7,774;  the  Neapolitan,  4,952;  the  Scotch,  Dound 
Troy,  7,620.8. 

A  cubic  foot  of  loose  earth  or  sand  weighs  95  pounds. 

A  cubic  foot  of  common  soil  weighs    124  pounds. 


c 

strong  soil, 
clay, 
mason's  work. 

li 

127 
135 
205 

distilled  water, 

11 

62.5      ' 

cast  iron, 

(C 

450.45    ' 

steel. 

it 

489.8       ' 

lead, 

cc 

709.5       ' 

platina, 
copper, 
cork. 

(C 

1,218.75    ' 
486.75    ' 
15 

tallow. 

(C 

59 

oak. 

C( 

73.15    ' 

brick, 

C( 

125 

air, 

(( 

0.0753    ' 

MEASURES  OF  CAPACITY. 


Measure  is  length,  breadth,  and  thickness,  estimated  by 
known  lengths,  or  compared  by  other  known  quantities  ; 
thus,  there  are  12X12X12=1,728  cubic  inches  in  a  cu- 
bic foot,  and  3X3X3=27  cubic  feet  in  a  cubic  yard. 

The  imperial  gallon  is  277.274  cubic  inches.  A  gill,  or 
quarter  of  a  pint,  is  8|  inches. 

The  imperial  gttllon  contains  10  lbs.  avoirdupois,  of  dis- 


COLLECTIONS  OF   FACTS.  287 

tilled  water,  weighed  in  air  at  62°,  with  the  barometer  at 
30  inches.  Two  gallons  are  equal  to  a  peck,  eight  to  a 
bushel,  and  eight  bushels  to  a  quarter. 

Heaped  measure,  per  bushel,  is  2,8 15J  cubic  inches 
clear. 

The  Winchester  bushel  is  18j  inches  in  diameter,  and 
8  inches  deep,  containing  2,154.42  cubic  inches. 

1,000  ounces  of  rain-water  are  equal  to  about  7  J  gallons 
wine  measure,  or  to  a  cubic  foot. 

7  pounds  avoirdupois  is  a  gallon  of  flour. 

A  chaldron  of  coals  is  58 1  cubic  feet. 

Twelve  wine  gallons  of  distilled  water,  weigh  100  lbs. 
avoirdupois. 

The  imperial  dry  bushel,  when  not  heaped,  is  2,218.192 
cubic  inches  ;  the  peck,  554.548  ;  gallon,  277.274,  and 
quart,  69.3185.  The  bushel  is  8  inches  deep,  and  18.8 
wide,  with  a  heap  6  inches  high. 

A  bushel  of  wheat  is  60  lbs.,  rye,  53  lbs.,  barley,  47  lbs., 
oats,  38,  peas,  64,  beans,  63,  clover-seed,  68,  rape,  48  lbs. 

A  Scotch  pint  is  equal  to  four  English  pints. 

A  Scotch  quart  is  208.6  cubic  inches. 

There  are  545,267,000  cubic  yards  in  a  cubic  mile. 

INTERESTING   FACTS    IN    CHEMISTRY. 

Chemistry  is  the  study  of  the  effects  of  heat  and  mix- 
ture, with  the  view  of  discovering  their  general  and  subor- 
dinate laws,  and  of  improving  the  useful  arts. — Black. 

Whenever  chemical  action  takes  place,  a  real  change 
is  produced  in  the  substance  operated  upon,  and  its  iden- 
tity is  destroyed.  If  a  little  powdered  chalk  (carbonate 
of  lime)  be  put  into  a  glass  of  water,  the  chalk  will  sink  to 
the  bottom  of  the  vessel.  Though  it  should  be  mixed  with 
the  water,  if  left  at  rest  it  will  soon  subside  ;  no  chemical 
action  has  taken  place  ;  therefore  the  water  and  the  car- 
bonate of  lime  both  remain  unaltered.  But  if  a  small  quan- 
tity of  diluted  sulphuric  acid  be  added  to  a  glass  of  chalk 
and  water,  a  violent  effervescence  will  commence  the  mo- 
ment they  come  in  contact  with  each  other  ;  a  chemical 
union  of  the  two  substances  will  be  the  consequence  of  this 
chemical  action  ;  the  identity  of  each  substance  will  be 
destroyed,  and  sulphate  of  lime,  or  gypsum  (a  body  very 
different  from  either  of  the  substances  employed)  will  be 
produced. 


288  APPENDIX. 

Heat  has  a  tendency  to  separate  the  particles  of  all 
bodies  from  each  other.  Hence  nothing  more  is  necessary 
to  effect  the  decomposition  of  many  bodies  than  to  apply 
heat,  and  collect  the  substances  which  are  separated  by 
that  means. 

It  is  evident  that  water  exists  in  the  atmosphere  in 
abundance,  even  in  the  driest  season,  and  under  the  clear- 
est sky.  There  are  substances  which  have  the  power  of 
absorbing  moisture  from  the  air,  at  all  times,  such  as  the 
fixed  alkalies,  (potash  and  soda,)  and  sulphuric  acid,  the 
latter  of  which  will  soon  absorb  more  than  its  own  weight 
of  water  from  the  air,  when  exposed  to  it.  Fresh-burnt 
lime  absorbs  it  rapidly  ;  and  earth  that  has  been  freshly 
stirred  absorbs  it  in  a  much  greater  degree,  at  night,  than 
that  which  is  crusted  and  compact.  Hence  the  impor- 
tance of  stirring  the  soil  among  tillage  crops,  in  time  of 
drought. 

Bishop  Watson  found,  that  even  when  there  had  been 
no  rain  for  a  considerable  time,  and  the  earth  was  dried 
by  the  parching  heat  of  summer,  it  still  gave  out  a  consid- 
erable quantity  of  water.  By  inverting  a  large  drinking- 
glass  on  a  close-mown  grass  plat,  and  collecting  the  vapor 
which  attached  to  the  inside  of  the  glass,  he  found  that  an 
acre  of  ground  dispersed  into  the  air  about  1,600  gallons 
of  water  in  the  space  of  twelve  hours,  of  a  summer's  day. 

Lavoisier  has  explained  solidity  thus:  "The  parti- 
cles of  all  bodies,"  says  he,  "  may  be  considered  as  sub- 
ject to  the  action  of  two  opposite  powers,  repulsion  and 
attraction,  between  which  they  remain  in  equilibrio.  So 
long  as  the  attractive  force  remains  stronger,  the  body  must 
continue  in  a  state  o^  solidity  ;  but  if,  on  the  contrary,  heat 
has  so  far  removed  these  particles  from  each  other  as  to 
place  them  beyond  the  sphere  of  attraction,  they  lose  the 
cohesion  they  before  had  with  each  other,  and  the  body 
ceases  to  be  solid." 

Aeriform  substances  (gases  and  vapors)  are  called 
elastic,  because  they  are  all  capable  of  being  reduced  into 
a  smaller  compass  by  pressure,  and  of  expanding  again  to 
their  usual  volume  whenever  the  pressure  is  removed. 
Thus  atmospheric  air  may  be  so  compressed,  that  128 
volumes  may  be  forced  into  a  space  usually  occupied  by 
one  volume,  and  the  greater  the  compression  the  more  will 
its  elasticity  be  increased.  It  is  on  this  principle  that  the 
air-gun  is  constructed. — Parke 


COLLECTIONS    OF   FACTS.  2B9 

Fluidity  is  owing  to  the  matter  of  heat  being  interposed 
between  the  particles  of  the  fluid  ;  which  heat  would  dis- 
sipate all  fluids  into  the  air,  were  it  not  tor  the  pressure  of 
the  atmosphere,  and  the  mutual  attraction  which  subsists 
between  those  particles.  Were  it  not  for  this  atmospheric 
pressure,  water  would  not  be  known  in  any  other  states 
than  those  of  ice  and  vapor  ;  for,  as  soon  as  ice  had  ac- 
quired caloric  enough  to  give  it  fluidity,  it  would  evaporate, 
and  be  dispersed  into  the  regions  of  space.  This  may  be 
proved  by  direct  experiment.  The  constitution  of  the 
world  in  this  respect  exhibits  a  beautiful  instance  of  the 
harmony  of  Nature,  and  of  the  exquisite  contrivance  of  its 
Divine  Author. 

On  the  other  hand,  could  we  totally  abstract  the  matter 
of  heat  from  any  fluid,  no  doubt  this  fluid  would  by  that 
means  be  changed  to  a  solid,  the  lightest  vapors  being 
nothing  more  than  solids  combined  with  heat.  Not  only 
fluids,  but  all  those  substances  which  are  soft  and  ductile, 
owe  their  properties  to  the  chemical  combination  of  caloric. 
Metals  owe  their  malleability  and  ductility  to  the  same 
cause  ;  for  in  very  intense  artificial  cold,  the  most  ductile 
metals,  such  as  gold,  silver,  and  lead,  lose  their  malleabil- 
ity, and  become  brittle,  as  Van  Mons  has  shown. — An- 
nals de  C/iimie. 

Take,  for  instance,  mercury.  This  metal  is  a  fluid  body 
in  our  climate,  but  by  cooling  it  to  30  degrees  below  the 
zero  of  Fahrenheit's  thermometer,  it  becomes  solid  ;  and 
if  it  be  heated  to  660  degrees,  it  will  be  volatilized  and 
converted  into  vapor. 

The  elasticity  of  air  and  steam  arises  from  the  caloric 
being  chemically  combined  with  the  solid  substances  of 
which  they  are  composed.  I  say  solid,  because  we  have 
abundant  evidence  that  oxygen  and  nitrogen  [the  principal 
elements  of  the  atmosphere]  are  both  capable  of  taking  a 
solid  form,  and  actually  do,  in  many  instances,  exist  in  a 
state  of  solidity.  Nitrogen  is  a  component  part  of  all  ani- 
mal substances,  and  exists  in  a  solid  state  in  all  the  ammoni- 
acal  salts.  Oxygen  takes  the  same  state  when  it  combines 
with  metals  and  other  combustibles  ;  and  in  the  composi- 
tion of  the  nitrous  salts,  they  both  take  the  same  state  of 
solidity.  These  facts  surely  evince  that  atmospheric  air 
owes  its  fluidity  to  caloric. — Parke. 

Whenever  a  body  chan2;cs  its  state,  it  either  combines 
with  caloric,  or  separates  from  caloric. — Dr.  Black. 
25  XIII. 


290  APPENDIX. 

It  is  an  axiom  in  hydrostatics,  that  every  substance  which 
sivims  on  water,  displaces  so  much  of  the  water  as  is  ex- 
actly equal  to  its  own  weight  ;  whereas,  when  a  substance 
sinks  in  water,  it  displaces  water  equal  to  its  bulk.  Take 
a  piece  of  hard  wood,  balance  it  accurately  in  a  pair  of 
scales  with  water,  and  then  place  it  gently  in  a  vessel  on 
the  surface  of  water  which  will  flow  over  the  top  of  the  ves- 
sel. If  the  wood  be  now  taken  out  with  care,  it  will  be 
found  that  the  water  in  the  scale  will  exactly  fill  the  va- 
cancy left  by  the  wood. — lb. 

The  specific  gravity  of  bodies  is  denoted  in  chemical 
writings  by  comparing  it  with  the  specific  gravity  of  pure 
water,  in  decimal  figures,  water  being  always  considered 
as  1.000.  Thus  the  specific  gravity  of  the  strongest  sul- 
phuric acid  (oil  of  vitriol)  is  1.850,  or  nearly  nine  tenths 
heavier  than  water.  Iron  is  7.650,  or  more  than  7|  times 
heavier  than  water  ;  that  is,  a  cubic  inch  of  iron,  if  put 
into  a  scale,  would  require  7|  inches  of  water  to  balance 
it  ;  silver  is  10.470  ;  gold  19.300  ;  and  platina  23.000,  or 
23  times  heavier  than  water. 

All  substances  that  float  upon  water  are  specifically 
lighter  than  it,  as  oils,  alcohol,  &c.  There  are  various 
instruments  which,  when  dropped  into  liquids,  indicate, 
upon  a  graduated  scale,  their  specific  gravity,  be  it  heavi- 
er or  lighter  than  water,  as  the  areometer,  hydrometer, 
&c.  Thus  the  juice  of  the  apple  or  grape  is  heavier  than 
water  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of  sugar  which  it  con- 
tains ;  and  after  fermentation,  it  becomes  specifically 
lighter  than  water  in  the  same  ratio,  the  sugar,  which 
was  heavier,  being  converted  into  alcohol,  which  is  lighter 
than  water.  The  tendency  of  wine  or  cider  to  run  into 
the  acetous  or  vinegar  fermentation,  is  in  proportion  to  its 
lightness  before,  and  heaviness  after  fermentation — the 
lighter  the  must,  the  heavier  the  liquor,  and  the  less  sugar 
in  the  former,  and  less  alcohol  in  the  latter.  The  specific 
gravity  of  apple-juice  varies  from  1.000  to  1,091.  Some 
we  lately  tried,  from  mixed  fruit,  indicated  1.063  by  Bau- 
me's  areometer. — Con. 

A  pint  measure  of  atmospheric  air  weighs  nearly  nine 
grains  ;  whereas  a  pint  measure  of  hydrogen  gas  weighs 
little  more  than  half  a  grain.  The  same  measure  of  pure 
water  weighs  upwards  of  one  pound  avoirdupois. 

It  may  be  remarked,  that  the  Creator  has  endowed  at- 
mospheric   air  with    the   property  of  preserving  its  own 


COLLECTIONS    OF   FACTS.  291 

equilibrium  at  all  times,  and  in  all  places.  Its  elasticity 
is  such,  that,  however  it  may  be  consumed  by  respiration 
or  combustion,  its  place  is  immediately  supplied  with  a  new 
portion,  and  though,  by  a  mistaken  policy,  the  doors  and 
windows  of  our  habitations  may  be  constructed  so  as  to 
exclude  it  as  much  as  possible,  it  will  have  admission  ;  it 
forces  its  way  through  every  crevice,  and  performs  the 
important  office  assigned  it,  in  defiance  of  all  exertions. — 
Parhe. 

PHILOSOPHICAL    FACTS. 

The  change  of  properties  which  takes  place  when  chem- 
ical attraction  acts,  is  not  confined  to  metals,  but  is  a  gener- 
al result  in  every  case,  where  different  bodies  are  brought 
into  this  state  of  combination  or  chemical  union.  Fre- 
quently we  find  that  the  properties  of  each  body  are  totally 
changed  ;  and  that  substances,  from  being  energetic  and 
violent  in  their  nature,  become  inert  and  harmless,  and  vice 
versa.  For  instance,  that  useful  and  agreeable  substance, 
culinary  salt,  which  is  not  only  harmless,  but  wholesome, 
and  absolutely  necessary  to  the  well-being  of  man,  is  com- 
posed of  two  formidable  ingredients,  either  of  which  taken 
into  the  stomach  proves  fatal  to  life  :  one  of  these  is  a  met- 
al, and  the  other  an  air  ;  the  former  is  called  sodium,  the 
latter  chlorine.  When  presented  to  each  other,  the  vio- 
lence of  their  nature  is  manifested  by  their  immediately 
bursting  out  into  flame,  and  instantly  they  are  both  deprived 
of  their  virulence.  Can  any  thing  be  more  striking  than 
the  change  of  properties  in  this  case  .''  and  who  could  have 
supposed  that  culinary  salt  is  composed  of  a  metal  united 
to  an  air  ?  The  medicine  called  Glauber's  salts  is  another 
instance  ;  it  is  composed  of  two  caustic  poisons  of  diflfer- 
ent  kinds  ;  one  called  oil  of  vitriol,  and  the  other  barilla 
or  soda.  There  are  also  two  substances  known  to  chem- 
ists, which  are  disgustingly  bitter  liquids  ;  one  is  called 
nitrate  of  silver,  and  the  other  hyposulphate  of  soda  ;  when 
mixed  they  form  a  compound  of  considerable  sweetness. 
But  the  atmosphere  which  we  breathe  is  the  most  extraor- 
dinary of  all  instances  :  it  must  be  surprising  to  those  who 
are  unacquainted  with  the  fact,  that  atmospheric  air,  indis- 
pensable as  it  is  to  life,  is  composed  of  the  same  ingredi- 
ents as  that  most  violent  and  destructive  liquid  called  aqua 
fords,  or  nitric  acid.     This  powerful  acid  being  made  to 


292 


APPENDIX. 


act  upon  sugar,  the  sweetest  of  all  things,  produces  a  sub- 
stance intensely  bitter  to  the  taste.  Charcoal  is,  of  all 
known  substances,  the  most  difficult  to  convert  into  vapor  ; 
so  much  so,  indeed,  that  the  conversion  has  never  yet 
been  decidedly  effected  ;  it  is  also  a  very  solid  substance  ; 
and  diamond,  which  is  nothing  but  crystallized  charcoal,  is 
one  of  the  hardest  bodies  in  Nature.  Sulphur,  in  the  solid 
state,  is  also  a  hard  substance,  and  to  hold  it  in  vapor  re- 
quires a  high  temperature.  But  when  these  two  substan- 
ces, carbon  and  sulphur,  are  made  to  combine  chemically 
so  as  to  form  the  substance  called  bisulphuret  of  carbon, 
their  properties  are  strikmgly  changed.  Instead  of  the 
compound  being  hard,  it  is  a  thin  liquid,  and  is  not  known 
to  freeze  or  solidify  at  any  degree  of  cold  that  can  be 
produced.  Instead  of  the  compound  being  difficult  to  va- 
porize, it  is,  of  all  liquids,  one  of  the  most  evaporable. 
Charcoal  is  the  blackest  substance  with  which  we  are  ac- 
quainted— sulphur  is  of  a  most  lively  yellow  hue  ;  but  the 
compound  is  as  colorless  as  water,  A  new  smell  and  taste 
are  acquired,  and,  in  a  word,  there  is  not  one  point  of  re- 
semblance with  the  constituents.  These  facts  are  strikingly 
illustrative  of  the  change  of  properties  which  follows  on  the 
exertion  of  chemical  attraction  between  the  ultimate  parti- 
cles of  bodies. — Donovan's  Chemistry. 


S  g  ft 

JVumber  of  bushels  of  marl  necessary  to  give  one  per 
cent,  of  carbonate  of  lime  to  an  acre,  for  a  ploughed 
depth  of  soil  of 

3  inches. 

4  inches. 

5  inches. 

6  inches. 

7  inches. 

8  inches. 

10 

875 

1166 

1458 

1750 

2041 

2833 

20 

437 

583 

729 

875 

1020 

1166 

30 

291 

388 

486 

583 

680 

777 

40 

218 

281 

364 

437 

510 

583 

50 

175 

233 

291 

350 

409 

466 

60 

145 

194 

242 

291 

340 

388 

70 

125 

180 

208 

250 

291 

333 

80 

109 

145 

182 

218 

255 

291 

90 

97 

129 

162 

194 

226 

259 

100 

87 

116 

145 

175 

204 

233 

COLLECTIONS    OF   FACTS. 


293 


Breadths  and  Lengths  of  an  Acre,  in  rods  or  perches  and  feet. 


Breadth. 

Length. 

Breadth. 

Length. 

Perches. 

Perches.        Feet. 

Perches. 

Perches.      Feet. 

10 

16 

28 

5             llii 

11 

14         9 

29 

5           81* 

12 

13         51 

30 

5           51 

13 

12         5J^ 

31 

5           2|| 

14 

11          7Jj 

32 

5 

15 

10       11 

33 

4         14 

16 

10 

34 

4         lli| 

17 

9          6U 

35 

4            9f 

18 

8        14| 

36 

4            n 

19 

8          6i| 

37 

4           5if 

20 

8 

38 

4           3x^5 

21 

^        10^3^ 

39 

4            lA 

22 

7         41 

40 

4 

23 

6     ms 

41 

3          14f| 

24 

6        11 

42 

3          13^^^ 

25 

6         6} 

43 

3         11|^ 

26 

6         2/^ 

44 

3         101 

27 

5       15^-^^ 

45 

3           9i 

Comparison  of  the  American  with  the  Scotch  and  Irish  Acre. 


American. 

Scotch. 

Irish. 

Acre. 

Acres. 

Roods. 

Perches. 

Acres. 

Roods. 

Perches. 

1 

0 

3 

14.4 

0 

2 

18.7 

2 

1 

2 

28.9 

1 

0 

35.5 

3 

2 

2 

17.3 

1 

3 

16.3 

4 

3 

1 

17.8 

2 

1 

35.1 

5 

4 

0 

32.2 

3 

0 

13.8 

6 

5 

0 

6.7 

3 

2 

32.6 

7 

5 

3 

21.1 

4 

1 

11.4 

8 

6 

2 

35.5 

4 

3 

30.2 

9 

7 

2 

10 

6 

0 

27.7 

10 

8 

1 

24.4 

6 

0 

27.7 

20 

16 

3 

8.9 

12 

1 

15.5 

30 

25 

3 

33.3 

18 

2 

3.2 

40 

33 

2 

17.8 

24 

2 

2.1 

25^ 


294 


APPENDIX. 


A  Table,  to  show  at  a  glance  the  number  of  hills  or  jilants 
each  other,  from  40  feet  by  40, 


Feet.  Feet. 

Per  acre. 

Feet. 

Feel. 

Per  acre. 

40  by  40 

27 

16  by  15 

175 

39  .  .  39 

28 

16  . 

.  10 

272 

38  .  .  38 

30 

16  . 

.  5 

544 

37  .  .  37 

31 

15  . 

.  15 

193 

36  .  .  36 

33 

15  . 

.  10 

290 

35  .  .  35 

35 

15  . 

.  5 

580 

34  .  .  34 

37 

14  . 

.  14 

222 

33  .  .  33 

40 

14  . 

.  10 

311 

32  .  .  32 

42 

14  . 

.  5 

622 

31  .  .31 

45 

13  . 

.  13 

257 

30  .  .  30 

48 

13  . 

.  10 

335 

29  .  .  29 

51 

13  . 

.  5 

670 

28  .  .  28 

55 

12  . 

.  12 

302 

27  .  .  27 

59 

12  . 

.  10 

363 

26  .  .  26 

64 

12  . 

.  5 

720 

25  .  .  25 

69 

11  . 

.  11 

360 

24  .  .  24 

75 

11  . 

.  10 

396 

23  .  .  23 

82 

11  . 

.  5 

792 

22  .  .  22 

90 

10  . 

.  10 

435 

21  .  .  21 

98 

10  . 

.  9 

484 

20  .  .  20 

108 

10  . 

.  8 

544 

20  .  .  15 

145 

10  . 

.  7 

622 

20  .  .  10 

217 

10  . 

.  6 

726 

20.  .  5 

435 

10. 

.  5 

871 

19  .  .  19 

120 

10  . 

.  4 

1089 

19  .  .  15 

152 

10  . 

.  3 

1452 

19  .  .  10 

229 

10  . 

.  2 

2178 

19  .  .  5 

458 

10  . 

.  1 

4356 

18  .  .  18 

134 

9  . 

.  9 

537 

18  .  .  15 

161 

9  . 

.  8 

605 

18  .  .  10 

242 

9  . 

.  7 

691 

18  .  .  5 

484 

9  . 

.  6 

806 

17  .  .  17 

150 

9  . 

.  5 

968 

17  .  .  15 

170 

9  . 

.  4 

1210 

17  .  .  10 

256 

9  . 

.  3 

1613 

17  .  .  5 

512 

9  . 

.  2 

2420 

16  .  .  16 

170 

9  . 

.  1 

4840 

Ft.  In.       Ft. 

Oby8 
7 


8  0 

8  0 

8  0 

8  0 

8  0 

8  0 

8  0 
0 


0  . 
0  . 
0  . 
0  . 
0. 
0  . 
0  . 
0  . 
0  . 
0  . 
0  . 
0  . 
0  . 
0. 
0. 
0  . 
0  . 
0  . 
0  . 
0  . 
0  . 
0  . 
0  . 
6  . 
6  . 
6  . 
6  . 
6  . 


Tir: 

Per  acre. 

0 

680 

0 

777 

0 

905 

0 

1089 

0 

1361 

0 

1815 

0 

2722 

0 

5445 

0 

888 

6 

957 

0 

1037 

6 

1131 

0 

1244 

6 

1382 

0 

1555  ' 

6 

1777 

0 

2074 

6 

2489 

0 

3111 

6 

4148 

0 

6222 

0 

1210 

6 

1320 

0 

1452 

6 

1613 

0 

1815 

6 

2074 

0 

2420  i 

6 

2904 

0 

3630 

6 

4840 

0 

7260  j 

6 

1417 

0 

1584 

6 

1760 

0 

1980 

6 

2272 

COLLECTIONS   OF   FACTS. 


296 


contained  in  an  acre  of  land,  at  any  given  distance  from 
to  1  foot  hij  1 ,  omitting  fractions. 


Ft.  111. 

Ft.  In. 

Per  acre 

Ft.  In. 

Ft.  In. 

Per  aero. 

Ft.  In. 

Ft.  In. 

Per  acre. 

5  6  by  3  0 

2640 

3  9  1 

t)y3  0 

.3872 

3  Ob> 

^  1  0 

14520 

5  6 

.  2  6 

3168 

3  9 

.  2  9 

4224 

2  9  . 

2  9 

5760 

5  6 

.  2  0 

3960 

3  9 

.  2  6 

4646 

2  9  . 

2  6 

6336 

5  6 

.  1  6 

5280 

3  9 

.  2  3 

5162 

2  9  . 

.  2  3 

7040 

5  6 

.  1  0 

7920 

3  9 

.  2  0 

5808 

2  9  . 

2  0 

7920 

5  0 

.  5  0 

1742 

3  9 

.  1  9 

6637 

2  9  . 

.  1  9 

9051 

5  0. 

.  4  6 

1936 

3  9 

.  1  6 

7744 

2  9  . 

.  1  6 

10560 

5   0  . 

.  4  0 

2178 

3  9 

.  1  3 

9272 

2  9  . 

.  1  3 

12672 

5  0  . 

.  3  6 

2489 

3  9 

.  1  0 

11616 

2  9  . 

.  1  0 

15840 

5  0  . 

.3  0 

2904 

3  6 

.  3  6 

3555 

2  6  . 

.  2  6 

6969 

5  0  . 

.  2  6 

3484 

3  6 

.  3  3 

3829 

2  6  . 

.  2  3 

7740 

5  0  . 

.  2  0 

4356 

3  6 

.  3  0 

4148 

2  6  . 

.  2  0 

8712 

5  0. 

.  1  6 

5808 

3  6  . 

.  2  9 

4525 

2  6  . 

1  9 

9956 

5  0. 

.  1  0 

8712 

3  6  . 

.  2  6 

4978 

2  6  . 

1  6 

11616 

4  6  . 

.  4  6 

2151 

3  6  . 

.  2  3 

5531 

2  6  . 

1  3 

13939 

4  6. 

.  4  0 

2420 

3  6  . 

.  2  0 

6222 

2  6  . 

1  0 

17424 

4  6  . 

.  3  6 

2765 

3  6  . 

.  1  9 

7111 

2  3  . 

2  3 

8604 

4  6  . 

.  3  0 

3226 

3  6  . 

.  1  6 

8297 

2  3  . 

2  0 

9680 

4  6  . 

.  2  6 

3872 

3  6  . 

.  1  3 

.9956 

2  3  . 

1  9 

11062 

4  6  . 

.  2  0 

4840 

3  6  . 

.  1  0 

12445 

2  3  . 

1  6 

12906 

4  6  . 

.  1  6 

6453 

3  3  . 

.3  3 

4124 

2  3  . 

1  3 

15488 

4  6  . 

.  1  0 

9680 

3  3  . 

.  3  0 

4818 

2  3  . 

1  0 

19360 

4  0. 

.  4  0 

2722 

3  3  . 

.2  9 

4873 

2  0. 

2  0 

10890 

4  0. 

.  3  9 

2904 

3  3  . 

.2  6 

5361 

2  0. 

1  9 

12445 

4  0. 

.  3  6 

3111 

3  3  . 

.2  3 

5956 

2  0. 

1  6 

14520 

4  0. 

.  3  3 

3350 

3  3  . 

.  2  0 

6701 

2  0. 

1  3 

17424 

4  0. 

.  3  0 

3630 

3  3  . 

.  1  9 

7658 

2  0. 

1  0 

21780 

4  0. 

.2  9 

3960 

3  3  . 

.  1  6 

8935 

1  9  . 

1  9 

14223 

4  0. 

.2  6 

4356 

3  3  . 

.  1  3 

10722 

1  9  . 

1  6 

16594 

4  0. 

.  2  3 

4840 

3  3  . 

.  1  0 

13403 

1  9  . 

1  3 

19913 

4  0. 

.  2  0 

5445 

3  0  . 

.  3  0 

4840 

1  9  . 

1  0 

24454 

4  0. 

.  1  9 

6222 

3  0  . 

.  2  9 

5289 

1  6  . 

1  6 

19360 

4  0. 

.  1  6 

7260 

3  0  . 

.  2  6 

5808 

1  6  . 

1  3 

23232 

4  0. 

.  1  3 

8712 

3  0  . 

.  2  3 

6453 

1  6  . 

1  0 

29040 

4  0  . 

.  1  0 

10890 

3   0  . 

.  2  0 

7260 

1  3  . 

1  3 

27878 

3  9 

.  3  9 

3097 ! 3  0  . 

.  1  9 

8297 

1  3  . 

1  0 

34848 

3  9  . 

.  3  6 

33181 

3  0  . 

.  1  6 

9680 

1  0  . 

1  0 

43560 

3  9  . 

.  3  3 

3574 

3  0  . 

.  1  3 

11616 

296  APPENDIX. 


AiV  ACRE  OF  LAND   CONTAINS 

4  Roods,  each  rood  40  rods,  poles,  or  perches. 
160  Rods,  30i  yards  each. 
4,840  Square  yards,  9  feet  each. 
43,560  Square  feet,  144  inches  each. 
174,240  Squares  of  6  inches  each. 
6,272,640  Inches,  or  squares  of  one  inch  each. 

•2  Table  of  various  Foreign  Coins,  Sfc,  with  their  value  inFed- 
eral  Money,  as  established  bij  an  act  of  Congress. 

$      d.    c.  m. 

Pound  sterling, 4     3     7  5 

Pound  of  Ireland, 4     10  0 

Pound  of  the  Canadas, 4     0     0  0 

Pagoda  of  India, 1      9     4  0 

Mill-rea  of  Portugal, 1     2     4  0 

Rouble  of  Russia, 0     6     6  0 

Rupee  of  Bengal, 0     5     5  0 

Guilder  of  the  Netherlands, 0     3     9  0 

Mark  Banco  of  Hamburgh, 0     3     4  4 

Livre  of  France, 0     1     8  5 

Real  of  Spain, 0     1     0  0 

Ji  Table  of  the  iveight  and  value  of  certain  Foreign  Coins. 

Names.  Standard  weight.         Federal  value. 

Gold.                                       dwt.  gr.        E.    $     d.     c.  m. 

A  Johannes, 18     0          17     0     6  4 

A  Half  Johannes, 9     0         0     8     5     3  2 

ADoubloon, 17     9          15     5     3  6 

An  English  Guinea, 5     9|       0     5     7     7  5 

Silver. 

English  or  French  Crown,         19     0         0     110  0 
The  Dollar  of  Spain,  Sweden, 

or  Denmark, 17     6         0     10     0  0 

An  English  Shilling, 3  11         0     0     2     2  2 


DEFINITIONS 

OF  TERMS  USED   IN  AGRICULTURE. 

Aeriform,ha.\mg  the  form  and  nature  of  an  elastic  invisible  fluid,  like 
air. 

Agriculture,  the  cultivation  and  management  of  the  soil,  on  the  scale 
of  a  farm,  by  animal  and  manual  labor  and  steam-power,  for  the 
production  of  materials  useful  for  the  food  and  service  of  man,  and 
for  various  purposes  in  arts,  manufactures,  and  civilized  life. 

Aliment,  that  which  nourishes  animals  or  vegetables  ;  the  nutritive 
quality  of  food,  dissolved  and  blended  with  the  juices  of  the  stom- 
ach, or  the  moisture  of  the  soil,  and  converted  into  chyle  or  sap, 
by  the  digestive  process,  and  taken  up  by  the  lacteals  or  spongioles, 
(chyle  or  sap  carrying  vessels.) 

Alkaline  Earths,  so  called  from  their  possessing  most  of  the  qualities 
of  alkalies,  as  lime,  magnesia,  strontia,  baryta. 

Alluvial  Soils,  formed  by  the  action  of  water,  as  river  flats,  com- 
posed of  various  and  heterogeneous  materials. 

Anbury,  a  disease  of  turnips  and  cabbages — tumors  upon  the  roots, 
caused  by  insects. 

Animalcule,  in  its  general  acceptation,  a  little  animal,  but  since  the 
invention  of  the  microscope,  the  term  is  particularly  applied  to  the 
myriads  of  insects,  too  small  to  be  seen  by  the  naked  eye,  which 
are  discovered  by  that  instrument. 

Animal  Manures,  all  dead  animal  matters,  as  fish,  bone,  horn.  Vc~ 
geto-animal  Manures,  stable  and  yard  dung,  partaking  of  vegetable 
and  animal  matters. 

Annual  Plants,  such  as  flower,  seed,  and  die,  the  year  they  are  grown. 

Antiseptic,  a  term  applied  to  those  substances  which  check  or  resist 
putrefaction,  as  salt,  &c. 

Aquatic  Plants,  plants  growing  in  water. 

Arable  Husbandry,  where  the  raising  of  grain  is  the  main  object  of 
the  cultivator,  as  in  wheat-growing  districts. 

Arborculture,  or  planting,  is  the  cultivation  of  useful  trees  and  shrubs, 
and  is  another  term  for  rural  embellishment. 

Assimilation,  in  animal  and  vegetable  economy,  is  that  hidden,  natu- 
ral process  by  which  living  animals  and  plants  are  enabled  to  con- 
vert such  bodies  as  have  a  certain  affinity  for  them,  or  at  least  after 
having  undergone  some  preparation,  and  change  of  properties,  into 
their  own  substance  and  nature. 

Biennial  Plants,  such  as  flower  and  seed  the  second  year  and  then 
die,  as  the  carrot,  cabbage,  onion. 


298  DEFINITIONS    OF 

Brairding  well,  a  Scotch  term,  denoting,  in  young  grain,  a  foliage 

wnich  promises  an  abundant  product. 
Calcareous  Soils,  such  as  will  efFervosce  with  acids.     According  to 

Sir  Humphrey  Davy,  they  contain  at  least  seven  eighths  of  sand. 
Cereal  Grasses,  those  raised  for  bread-corn  ;   wheat,  &c. 
Clayey  Soils.     This  term,  Sir  Humphrey  Davy  says,  should  not  be 

applied  to  soils  which  contain  less  than  one  sixth  of  impalpable  matter. 

They  are  called  argillaceous,  and  often  aluminous  soils. 
Composts,  mixtures  of  various  earthy  and  vegetable  materials,  as  peat 

earth,  lime,  dung,  loam,  &c. 
Convertible  Husbandry,  mixed  husbandry,  which  implies  frequent 

change,  in  the  same  field,  from  tillage  to  grass,  and  from  grass  to 

tillage — an  alternation  of  dry,  root,  and  grass  crops. 
Corn,  in  Europe,  embraces  every  crop  that  is  convertible  into'bread, 

as  wheat,  barley,  oats,  &.c.     In  the  United  States,  the  term  is  partic- 
ularly applied  to  maize,  or  Indian  corn. 
Cotyledons,  seed-lobes,  or   seed-leaves,  the   fleshy  parts  of  seeds,  or 

the  two  halves,  which  separate  in  the  act  of  sprouting,  and  rise  above 

the  ground. 
Cropping,  the  raising,  cutting,  and  carrying  off  the  crop  ;  generally 

applied  to  tillage  crops. 
Culinary   Vegetables,  such  as  are  raised  for  the  table. 
Culmiferous  Crops,  consist  of  the  grains  and  the  grasses  which  have 

smooth,   jointed    stalks,    (culms,)    and    seed    contained   in    chaffy 

husks,    as    wheat,  timothy,    &c.      These    have    generally    fibrous 

roots. 
Dry  Crops,  are  those  which  mature  their  seeds  before  they  are  gath- 
ered, as  wheat,  rye,  barley,  &c.     They  are  considered  the  most 

exhausting  crops. 
Earth,  as   applied   to   the  ground,  lime,  clay,  sand,  or  one  or  more 

earthy  materials,  in  a  friable  and  divided  state,  and  either  alone  or 

mixed,  but  without  the  addition  of  inuch  organic  matter. 
Fanner,  one  who  cultivates  a  farm,  be  he  proprietor  or  tenant.     On 

the  old  continent,  the  term  is  only  applied  to  such  as  pay  rent.     As 

our  cultivators  are  generally  proprietors,  we  give  to  the  term  its 

broadest,  though  perhaps  not  its  legitimate  definition. 
Ferruginous  Soils,  are  those  which  abound  in  iron,  the  presence  of 

which  is  generally  indicated  by  a  red  or  yellow  color,   in  the  soil 

and  the  waters  which  pass  through  it. 
Floriculture,  is  that  branch  of  gardening,  which  has  cognizance  of 

flowers,  of  ornamental  shrubs,  and  forcing  and  exotic  gardening,  so 

far  as  respects  plants  of  ornament. 
Foliage  Grasses,  plants  cultivated  for  their  leaves,  to  be  used  green, 

as  the  cabbage,  spinach,  lettuce  tribes,  &c. 
Furrow  Drains,  parallel  drains,  made  at  intervals  of  sixteen  to  thirty 

feet,  generally  in  the  furrows  between  ridges,  on  flat  and  retentive 

soils,  constructed  like  under  drains. 
Geine,  of  like  import  with  Humus,  which  see. 
Germination,  the  act  of  sprouting  ;  the  beginning  of  vegetation  m  a 

seed  or  plant. 
Grass  Crops,  are  the  grasses  cut  for  hay,  or  fed  oflfin  pasturage. 


AGRICULTURAL   TERMS.  299 

Grass  Husband^']/,  where  the  principal  object  is  the  dairy,  the  rearing 
•^    of  domestic  animals,  &c.,  as  in  grazing  districts. 
Green  Crops,  are  clover,  buckwheat,  or  other  growing  crops,  buried 
by  the  plough  to  enrich  the  soil — considered  improving  crops. 

Herbage  Plants,  clover  and  other  plants  cultivated  chiefly  for  the 
herb,  to  be  used  either  green  or  to  be  made  into  hay. 

Horticulture,  is  to  the  garden,  what  agriculture  is  to  the  farm, — 
the  application  of  labor  and  science  to  a  limited  spot,  for  conve- 
nience, for  profit,  or  for  ornament — though  implying  a  higher  state 
of  cultivation  than  is  common  in  agriculture.  It  includes  the  culti- 
vation of  culinary  vegetables  and  of  fruhs,  and  forcing  or  exotic 
gardening,  as  far  as  respects  useful  products. 

Humus,  or  Geine,  the  product  of  organic  matter,  and  the  food  of  plants. 

Husbandman,  one  who  farms  generally  ;  that  is,  who  produces  both 
grain  and  cattle,  and  attends  to  the  dairy,  the  poultry,  and  the  or- 
chard. A  farmer,  says  Loudon,  may  confine  himself  to  grazing,  or 
to  breeding,  or  to  haymaking,  or  milking,  or  raising  green  crops  for 
the  market,  &c.,  but  in  none  of  these  cases  can  he  with  propriety 
be  called  a  husbandman.  The  term  farmer  is  therefore  not  exactly 
synonymous  with  husbandman. 

Husbandrxj,  is  here  used  as  comprehending  all  that  belongs  to  agricul- 
ture. 

Inorganic  Matter,  devoid  of  organs  ;  not  formed  with  the  organs  or 
instruments  of  life  ;  pure  earths. 

Insoluble  Matters,  matters  which  cannot  be  dissolved  by  the  waters 
of  the  soil. 

Landscape  Gardening,  is  the  art  of  so  arranging  the  external  scenes 
of  a  country  residence,  as  to  render  them  ornamental,  both  as  do- 
mestic scenery,  and  as  a  part  of  the  general  scenery  of  a  country. 

Latter  math.  After  math,  Rowcn,  are  all  terms  which  express  the  sec- 
ond crop  of  grass. 

Lay,  Ley,  Lea,  different  terms  applied  to  meadow,  pasture,  or  sward. 

Leguminous  Crops — peas,  beans,  and  the  like — having  a  seed-vessel 
with  two  valves,  in  which  the  seeds  are  fixed  to  one  .side  only. 

Liquid  Manures,  those  that  are  applied  in  a  liquid  form,  as  urine,  the 
liquids  of  the  cattle-yard,  soap-suds,  &c. 

Manures,  every  species  of  matter  capable  of  promoting  the  growth  of 
vegetables.    See  Animal,  Mineral,  and   Vegetable. 

Mechanical  Manures,  are  those  which  serve  to  improve  the  texture 
of  soils,  as  sand  applied  to  clay,  clay  to  sand,  and  marl  or  mild 
lime  to  both,  when  they  are  deficient  in  calcareous  matter. 

Mineral  Manures,  such  as  serve  to  dissolve  the  org:tnic  matters  in  the 
soil,  to  induce  new  soluble  compounds,  or  to  stimulate  the  organs  of 
plants,  as  quicklinie,  gypsum,  ashes,  salt,  &c. 

Mould,  organic  matter  in  a  finely  divided  and  decomposed  state,  with 
a  little  admixture  of  earth,  as  vegetable  mould,  leaf  mould,  peat 
mould,  &c. 

Organic  Matters,  animal  or  vegetable  matters  in  a  greater  or  less 
state  of  decay. 

Organic  Remains,  are  the  remains  of  living  bodies  either  petrified  or 
imbedded  in  stone. 


300  AGRICULTURAL   TERMS. 

Peatxj  Soils,  are  those  of  morasses,  swamps,  &c,,  and  to  be  entitled 
to  this  application,  should  consist,  according  to  Sir  Humphrey  Davy, 
of  one  half  vegetable  matter. 

Perennial  Plants,  those  that  do  not  generally  flower  the  first  year, 
but  die  down  to  the  ground,  and  grow  up  again  the  next  spring, 
and  so  on  for  a  number  of  years,  as  rhubarb,  horse-radish,  &,c. 

Primitive  Soils,  such  as  exist  in  primitive  or  early  formations  of 
the  globe,  destitute  of  organic  remains,  as  most  of  those  of  New- 
England. 

Professional  Gardener,  one  who  has  served  an  apprenticeship  to 
gardening,  and  understands  the  processes  of  culture,  propagation,  and 
forcing. 

Root  Crops,  are  potatoes,  turnips,  beets,  carrots,  &c.,  which  divide 
and  pulverize  the  soil  by  their  roots,  and  keep  it  clean  from  weeds. 
These  are  called  ameliorating  crops. 

Saline  Soils,  are  those  which  become  impregnated  with  marine  or 
common  salt,  by  being  flooded  with  sea-water,  or  from  other  causes. 

Sandy  Soils,  are  those  which  contain,  according  to  Sir  Humphrey 
Davy,  at  least  seven  eighths  of  sand.  These  are  denominated  sili- 
cious  soils. 

Secondary  Soils,  belong  to  secondary  or  more  recent  formations,  and 
abound  more  or  less  in  organic  remains. 

Soil,  earth  either  of  one  or  of  several  sorts,  mixed  with  decomposed 
organic  matter. 

Soils,  see  Alluvial,  Calcareous,  Clayey,  Ferrugi?ious,  Peaty,  Prim- 
itive, Saline,  Sandy,  Secondary. 

Soluble  Matters,  organic  matters  which  can  be  dissolved  by  the  wa- 
ters of  the  soil. 

Stolons,  roots  that  produce  suckers  or  fruits  ;  as  of  the  potato,  which 
produce  tubers,  or  of  the  quack  or  June  grasses,  which  send  up 
shoots  or  suckers. 

Strata,  the  plural  of  stratum,  beds  or  layers  of  earth  or  other  sub- 
stances. 

Stratum,  a  bed,  or  layer,  naturally  or  artificially  formed,  distinct  from 
the  adjacent  matter. 

Under  Drains,  drains  for  the  conveyance  of  water,  made  of  stone,  tile, 
or  other  materials,  and  covered  with  earth. 

Vegetables,  plants,  organized  bodies,  generally  deriving  their  nour- 
ishment from  the  soil. 

Vegetable  Manures,  vegetable  matters  which  have  not  undergone  the 
process  of  animal  mastication,  as  green  crops,  straw,  &c. 

Vegeto-animal  Manures,  see  Animal  Manures. 


A    GLOSSARY 

OF  CHEMICAL  TERMS. 

Absorption^  the  conversion  of  a  gaseous  fluid  into  a  liquid  or  solid. 
Acetate,  salt  formed  by  the  combination  of  any  base  with  the  acetic 

acid. 
Acetate  of  lead,  sugar  of  lead. 
Acetic  acid,  concentrated  vinegar. 
Acids,  compounds  of  bases  with  oxygen,  hydrogen,  &c. 
AEther,  a  volatile  liquid,  formed  of  alcohol  and  an  acid. 
Affinity,  a  force  by  which  substances  o^  different  kinds  unite. 
Alkali,  (fossil,  or  mineral,)  soda. 
Alkali,  {vegetable,)  potash. 
Alkali,  (volatile,)  ammonia. 
Alcohol,  rectified  spirits  of  wine. 
Alluvial,  depositions  of  soil  made  by  water. 
Alum,  a  compound  of  sulphuric  acid,  alumina,  and  potash,  or  anuno- 

nia. 
Alumine,  earth  of  alum  ;  pure  argillaceous  clay. 
Anthracite,  mineral  coal  containing  no  bitumen. 
Areometer,  a  graduated  glass  instrument  with  a  bulb,  by  which  the 

specific  gravity  of  liquids  is  taken  ;  an  hydrometer. 
Argillaceous,  of  the  nature  of  clay. 

Aroma,  the  odor  which  arises  from  certain  vegetables,  or  their  infu- 
sions. 
Azote,  nitrogen  ;  the  basis  of  atmospheric  air,  of  ammonia,  nitrous 

acid,  &c. 
Barometer ,  an  instrument  which  shows  the  variation  of  atmospheric 

pressure. 
Bell  metal,  an  alloy  of  tin  and  copper. 
Brass,  an  alloy  of  copper  and  zinc. 
Calcareous,  partaking  of  the  nature  of  lime. 
Caloric,  the  chemical  term  for  the  matter  of  heat. 
Caloric,  (free,)  radiant  heat,  or  that  which  is  not  in  chemical  union 

with  other  bodies. 
Caloric,  (latent,)  the  matter  of  heat  in  a  state  of  combination  ;  not 

perceptible. 
Carbon,  the  base  of  diamond  and  of  charcoal. 
Carbonate  of  lime,  the  compound  of  carbonic  acid  and  lime,  under 

the  names  of  marble,  limestone,  calcareous  spar,  chalk,  &c. 
Carbonate  of  jjotash,  common  potash  ;  pearlash  ;  salt  of  tartar. 
Carbonic  acid,  carbon  combined  with  oxygen. 

Chalybeate,  the  term  applied  to  uiineial  waters  impregnated  with  iron. 
Citric  acid,  the  acid  of  lemons. 

20  XIII. 


302  GLOSSARY  OF 

Cohesion,  a  force  inherent  in  all  the  particles  of  bodies,  by  which 
they  are  prevented  from  falling  to  pieces. 

Concentration,  the  act  of  increasing  the  specific  gravity  of  bodies. 

Decomposition,  separation  of  the  constituent  principles  of  compound 
bodies. 

Effervescence,  an  intense  motion  which  takes  place  in  certain  bodies 
caused  by  the  escape  of  a  gaseous  substance. 

Efflorescence,  the  pulverulent  form  of  saline  bodies  produced  by  expo- 
sure to  the  air,  in  consequence  of  losing  their  water  of  crystallization. 

Elements,  are,  properly,  the  simple  constituent  parts  of  bodies,  in- 
capable of  decomposition,  or  further  division. 

Essences,  the  essential  oils  obtained  by  distillation  from  odoriferous 
vegetable  substances. 

Evaporation,  dissipation  of  fluids  by  heat  ;  evaporating  fluids  into 
vapor  by  heat. 

Fermentation,  a  peculiar  spontaneous  motion,  which  occurs  in  vege- 
table substances,  if  exposed  to  proper  temperature,  under  certain 
circumstances.  It  is  usually  divided  into  the  acetous,  vinous,  sac- 
charine, and  putrefactive  stages. 

Fluidity,  a  term  applied  to  all  liquid  substances.  Solids  are  con- 
verted into  fluids  by  combining  with  a  certain  portion  of  caloric. 

Gallic  acid,  the  acid  found  in  gall-nuts. 

Gas.  All  solid  substances,  when  converted  into  permanently  elastic 
fluids  by  caloric,  are  called  gases. 

Gelatin,  a  chemical  term  for  animal  gelly. 

Gluten,  a  vegetable  substance  allied  to  gelatin. 

Gravity,  that  property  by  which  bodies  fall  to  the  earth. 

Gravity,  (specific,)  is  the  weight  of  any  solid  or  fluid  body,  compared 
with  the  same  measure  of  distilled  water. 

Hydrates.  Those  substances  which  have  formed  so  intimate  an  union 
with  water  as  to  solidify  the  water,  and  render  it  one  of  its  compo- 
nent parts,  are  called  hydrates. 

Hydrate  of  lime,  lime  slaked  in  w'ater. 

Hydrogen,  the  base  of  water  ;  inflammable  air. 

Hydrometer ,  see  Areometer. 

Incineration,  the  converting  of  vegetables  to  ashes,  by  burning. 

Laboratory,  a  room  fitted  up  with  apparatus  for  the  performance  of 
chemical  operations. 

Lime,  quicklime  ;  calcareous  earth  ;  oxide  of  calcium. 

Lute,  a  composition  for  closing  the  junctures  of  chemical  vessels,  &c. 

Maceration,  softening  a  solid  body  in  a  fluid,  without  impregnating 
the  fluid  with  it. 

Malic  acid,  acid  of  apples. 

Malleability,  that  property  of  metals  which  gives  them  the  quality 
of  being  extended  and  flattened  by  hammering. 

Menstruum,  the  fluid  in  which  a  solid  body  is  dissolved. 

Mineral,  any  natural  substance  of  a  metallic,  earthy,  or  saline  nature. 

Mordants,  substances  which  have  a  chemical  aflinity  for  particular 
colors,  as  alum. 

Mucilage,  a  vegetable  principle  allied  to  gum. 

Muriates,  salts  formed  by  the  combination  of  any  base  with  muriatic 
acid. 


CHEMICAL  TERMS.  303 

Muriatic  acid,  spirit  of  sea-salt. 

Muriate  of  soda,  common  salt. 

J\ritrate  of  potash,  saltpetre,  nitre. 

JVitrates,  salts  formed  by  the  combination  of  any  base  with  nitric 

acid. 
JVeutral  salt,  a  substance  formed  by  the  union  of  an  acid  with  an 

alkali,  an  earth,  or  a  metallic  oxide,  in  such  proportions  as  to  sat- 
urate both  the  base  and  the  acid. 
Oxalic  acid,  the  acid  found  in  sorrel. 
Oxide,  any  substance  combined  with  oxygen,  in  a   proportion   not 

sufficient  to  produce  acidity  ;  rust  of  metals. 
Oxidize,  to  combine  oxygen  with  a  body  without  producing  acidity. 
Oxygen,  a  simple  substance,  being  one  of  the  component  parts  of  water 

and  of  atmospheric  air  ;  vital  air. 
Oxxjgeii  gas,  oxygen  converted  into  gas  by  combining  with  caloric. 
Pellicle,  a  thin  skin  which  forms  on  the  surface  of  saline  and  other 

liquids,  when  boiled  down  to  a  certain  strength. 
Pyrolignic  acid,  an  acid  obtained  from  wood  by  burning. 
Sal,  a  salt. 
Saturation,  the  act  of  impregnating  a  fluid  with  another  substance, 

till  no  more  of  it  can  be  received  or  imbibed. 
Silicious  earths,  natural  substances  which  are  composed  chiefly  of 

silica  ;  as  quartz,  flint,  sand,  &c. 
Simple  substances,  synonymous  with  elements  ;  not  divisible. 
Smelting,  the  operation  of  fusing  ores,  to  separate  the  metal  from  the 

sulphur,  arsenic,  and  other  matters  with  which  it  is  combined. 
Solution,  the  perfect  union  of  a  solid  substance  with  a  fluid. 
Sulphates,  Sulphats,  Sulphites,  salts  formed  by  the  combination  of  any 

base  with  sulphuric  acid. 
Sulphate  of  copper,  blue  vhriol  ;  blue  stone. 
Sulphate  of  iron,  copperas  ;  green  vitriol. 
Sulphate  of  lime,  gypsum. 
Sulphate  of  soda,  Glauber's  salts. 
Sulphate  of  zinc,  white  vitriol. 
Sulphate  of  potash,  a  chemical  salt,  composed  of  sulphuric  acid  and 

potash.     Sulphuret  of  potash,  sulphur  and  potash  fused  together. 
Sulphate  of  magnesia,  Epsom  salts. 
Sulphuric  acid,  oil  of  vitriol  ;  vitriolic  acid. 
Super-tartrate  of  potash,  cream  of  tartar. 
Subacetate  of  copper,  verdigris. 

Sulphurets,  combinations  of  alkaline  earths  or  metals  with  sulphur. 
Tartaric  acid,  the  acid  found  in  the  grape. 
Tartrates,  Tartrites,  salts  formed  by  the  combination  of  any  base  with 

the  acid  of  tartar. 
Thermometer,  an  instrument  to  show  the  relative  heat  of  bodies  and 

of  the  atmosphere. 
Trituration,  the  pulverizing,  or  uniting  of  bodies  by  friction. 
Torrefaction,  roasting  of  ores. 
Vacuum,  a  space  unoccupied  by  matter. 


THE  SCHOOL  ADVERTISER     NO.  H. 

AUGUST,    1839. 


THE  SCHOOL  LIBRARY. 


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that  will  interest,  as  well  as  instruct  them,  and  of  such  a 
character  that  they  will  turn  to  them  with  pleasure,  when 
it  is  desirable  to  unbend  from  the  studies  of  the  school 
room. 

The  plan  will  embrace  every  department  of  Science  and 
Literature,  preference  being  given  to  works  relatino-  to 
our  own  Country,  and  illustrative  of  the  history,  institutions, 
manners,  customs,  &c.,  of  our  own  people.  Being  intended 
for  the  whole  community,  no  work  of  a  sectarian  or  de- 
nominational character  in  religion,  or  of  a  partisan  char- 
acter in  politics,  will  be  admitted. 

The  aim  will  be  to  clothe  the  subjects  discussed,  in  a 
popular  garb,  that  they  may  prove  so  attractive,  as  to  lure 


the  child  onwards,  fix  his  attention,  and  induce  him,  sub- 
sequently, to  seek  information  from  other  and  more  re- 
condite works,  which,  if  put  into  his  hands  at  the  onset, 
would  alarm  him,  and  induce  a  disgust  for  that  which 
would  appear  dry  and  unintelligible,  and  of  course,  un- 
interesting. 

The  intention  is  not  to  provide  information  for  any  one 
class,  to  the  exclusion  of  others,  but  to  disseminate  knowl- 
edge among  all  classes.  The  Publishers  wish  the  children 
of  the  Farmer,  the  Merchant,  the  Manufacturer,  the  Me- 
chanic, the  Laborer, — all  to  profit  by  the  lights  of  science 
and  literature,  that  they  may  be  rendered  the  more  virtu- 
ous and  happy,  and  become  more  useful  to  themselves,  to 
one  another,  to  the  community,  and  mankind  at  large. 
To  accomplish  this  desirable  end,  the  Library  will  em- 
brace so  wide  a  range  of  subjects,  that  every  child  may 
find  something  which  will  prove  useful  and  profitable  to 
him,  whatever  his  situation,  circumstances,  or  pursuits,  in 
afterlife  may  be. 

The  project  is  one  of  great  extent,  and  vast  importance; 
and,  if  properly  carried  out,  must  become  of  inestimable 
value  to  the  young.  Whether  the  anticipations  of  the 
Publishers,  with  regard  to  it,  will  be  verified,  time  must 
determine  ;  but  from  the  intellectual  and  moral,  theoretical 
and  practical  character  of  those  who  have  engaged  to  aid 
in  the  undertaking,  they  have  good  grounds  for  presuming 
that  much  will  be  accomplished,  and  that  by  their  united 
efforts  many  obstacles,  now  existing  to  the  mental,  moral, 
and  physical  improvement  of  youth,  will  be  removed,  or  at 
least  be  rendered  more  easily  surmountable. 

Among  the  individuals  already  engaged  as  writers  for 
one  or  both  Series,  may  be  mentioned — the  Hon.  Judge 
Story,  Jared  Sparks,  Esq.,  Washington  Irving,  Esq.,  Rev. 
Dr.  Wayland,  Professor  Benjamin  Silliman,  Professor  Den- 
nison  Olmsted,  Professor  Alonzo  Potter,  Hon.  Judge  Buel, 
Dr.  Jacob  Bigelow,  Dr.  Robley  Dunglison,  Dr.  Elisha 
Bartlctt,  Rev.  Charles  W.  Upham,  Rev.  F.  W.  P.  Green- 
wood, Rev.  Royal  Robbins,  Rev.  Warren  Burton,  Ar- 
thur J.  Stansbury,  Esq.,  E.  C.  Wines,  Esq.,  Robert  Ran- 
toul,  Jr.,  Esq.,  Professor  Tucker,  and  Professor  Elton. 

Mrs.  Sarah  J.  Hale,  Mrs.  E.  F.  Ellet,  Mrs.  Emma  C. 
Embury,  Mrs.  A.  H.  Lincoln  Phelps,   Miss  E.  Robbins, 


Miss  E.  P.  Peabody,   Miss  Mary  E.  Lee,   Miss   Caroline 
Sedgwick. 

No  work  will  be  admitted  into  the  Library,  unless  it  be 
approved  by  every  member  of  the  Board  of  Education  ; 
which  Board  consists  of  the  following  individuals,  viz., 
His  Excellency  Edward  Everett,  Chairman,  His  Honor 
George  Hull,  Rev.  Emerson  Davis,  Edmund  Dwight, 
Esq.,  Rev.  George  Putnam,  Robert  Rantoul,  Jr.,  Esq., 
Rev.  Thomas  Robbins,  D.  D.,  Jared  Sparks,  Esq.,  Hon. 
Charles  Hudson,  and  Hon.  George  N.  Briggs. 

The  following  works,  have  been  printed,  and  constitute 
the  first  ten  volumes  of  the  12mo.  series,  viz. 

LIFE  OF  COLUMBUS,  by  Washington  Irving,  a 
new  edition,  (revised  by  the  author,)  including  a  Visit  to 
Palos,  and  other  additions,  a  portrait  of  the  Great  Naviga- 
tor, a  Map,  and  several  illustrative  engravings. 

PALEY'S  NATURAL  THEOLOGY,  in  two  volumes, 
with  selections  from  the  Dissertations  and  Notes  of  Lord 
Brougham  and  Sir  Charles  Bell,  illustrated  by  numer- 
ous wood  cuts,  and  prefaced  by  a  Life  of  the  Author ; 
(with  a  portrait;)  the  whole  being  newly  arranged  and 
adapted  for  The  School  Library,  by  Elisha  Bartlett, 
M.  D.,  Professor  of  the  T/ieory  and  Practice  of  Phijsic  and 
Pathological  .8.natomy  in  Dartmouth  College. 

LIVES  OF  EMINENT  INDIVIDUALS,  CELEBRA- 
TED IN  AMERICAN  HISTORY,  in  three  vols.,  with 
portraits  of  Robert  Fulton,  Sebastian  Cabot,  and  Sir  Henry 
Vane,  and  autographs  of  most  of  the  individuals. 

Vol.  I.  WILL  CONTAIN 

Life  of  Major-general  John  Stark,  by  His  Excellency  Edward  Everett. 
"      David  Brainerd,  by  Rev.  William  B.  O.  Peabody. 

"      Robert  Fulton,  by  James  Renwick,  LL.  !>.,  Professor  of  Natural  Phi- 
losophy and  Chemistry,  in  Colinnbia  College,  Neiv  York  City. 
"      Captain  John  Smith,  by  George  S.  Hillard,  Esq. 
Vol.  II.  WILL  contain 

Life  of  Major-general  Ethan  Allen,  by  Jared  Sparks,  Professor  of  History 
in  Harvard  University. 
Sebastian  Cabot,  by  Charles  Hayward,  Jr.,  Esq. 
Henry  Hudson,  by  Henry  R.  Cleveland,  Esq. 

Major-general  Joseph  W^arren,  by  Alexander  H.  Everett,  LL.  D. 
MvjOR-GENERAL  IsRAEL  PuTNAM,  by  O.  W.  B.  Peabody,  Esq. 
David  Rittenhouse,  by  Professor  James  Renwick,  LL.  D 


Vol.  III.  WILL  CONTAIN 

Life  of  William  Pinkney,  by  Henry  Wheaton,  LL.  D.,  Author  of  History  of 
the  Northmen. 
"      Sir  Henry  Vane,  by  Rev.  Charles  W.  Upliam. 
"       M.vjOR-GENEKAL  ANTHONY  Wayne,  by  Joliu  Armstrong,  Esq. 
"       William  Elleky,  by  Edward  T.  Channing,  Esq. 
♦'      Major-general  Richard  Montgomery,  by  John  Armstrong,  Esq. 

THE  SACRED  PHILOSOPHY  OF  THE  SEASONS, 

illustrating  The  Perfections  of  God  in  the  Phenomena  of 
the  Year.  In  4  vols.  By  the  Rev.  Henry  Duncan,  D.  D., 
of  Ruthivell,  Scotland;  with  important  additions,  and  some 
modifications  to  adapt  it  to  American  readers,  by  the  Rev. 
F.  W.  P.  Greenwood,  of  Boston. 

The  great  value  and  interesting  nature  of  these  volumes,  to  every 
class  of  individuals,  will  be  seen,  at  once,  by  a  perusal  of  the  following 
Table  of  Contents.    The  work  contains  a  paper  for  every  day  in  the  year. 

VOL.  I.— WINTER. 

I.  Sunday. — Goodness  of  God  to  his  Rational  Creatures.  The  Character  im- 
pressed on  Nature — Compensation.     Contrivance. 

COSMICAL  arrangements. 

Globular  Figure  of  the  Earth.  Circulation  in  the  Atmosphere  and  Ocean. 
The  Atmosphere.  Ignis  Fatuus.  ii.  Sunday. — General  Aspect  of  Winter. 
Phosphorescence.  Aurora  Borealis.  Meteoric  Showers.  Variety  of  Climates. 
Practical  Effect  of  the  Commercial  Spirit  produced  by  a  Variety  of  Climates. 
Adaptation  of  Organized  Existences  to  Seasons  and  Climates,  iii.  Sunday. — 
The  Omnipresence  of  God.  Adaptation  of  Organized  Existences  to  the  Tropical 
Regions.  Adaptation  of  Organized  Existences  to  Temperate  and  Polar  Climates. 
The  Balance  Preserved  in  the  Animal  and  Vegetable  Creation.  Night. — Its  Al- 
ternation with  Day.  Sleep.  Dreaming,  iv.  Sunday. — The  World  a  State  of 
Discipline, 

THE  STARRY   HEAVENS. 

General  Remarks.  Gravitation  and  Inertia.  The  Planetary  System.  The 
Sun  as  the  Source  of  Light  and  Heat.  Motions  of  the  Planets.  Resisting  Me- 
dium, v.  Sunday. — Divine  and  Human  Knowledge  compared.  The  Satellites. 
Relative  Proportions  of  the  Planetary  System.  Distance  of  the  Fixed  Stars. 
Immensity  of  the  Universe.     Nebulae.     Binary  Stars. 

THE  MICROSCOPE. 

VI.  Sunday. — Discoveries  of  the  Telescope  and  Microscope  compared.  Won- 
ders of  the  Microscope. — Infusory  Animalcules. 

HYBERNATION  OF  PLANTS. 

Plants  and  Animals  compared.  Adjustment  of  the  Constitution  of  Plants  to 
the  Annual  Cycle.     Physiological  Condition  of  Plants  during  Winter. 

HYBERNATION  OF  INSECTS. 

Instinct,  vii.  Sunday. — On  Seeing  God  in  his  Works.  Reason  in  the  Lower 
Animals.  Eggs.  Various  States.  Bees.  The  Snail.  The  Beetle,  viii.  Sun- 
day.— Greatness  of  God  even  in  the  Smallest  Things. 

MIGRATIONS  OF  BIRDS  AND  QUADRUPEDS  DURING  WINTER. 

Birds.     Birds  which  partially  migrate.     Quadrupeds. 

Christmas-Day.  No  Season  Unpleasant  to  the  Cheerful  Mind.  ix. 
Sunday. — Proofs  of  Divine  Benevolence  in  the  Works  of  Creation. 


MIGRATION  OF  FISHES. 

The  Sturgeon,  the  Herring,  the  Cod,  &c.     Cetaceous  Animals.    Migration  from 
the  Sea  into  Rivers.     Migration  of  Eels. 
New-Year's-Day. 
Migration  of  the  Land-Crab.    x.  Sunday. — Winter  an  Emblem  of  Death. 

HYBERNATION  OF  QUADRUPEDS. 

Clothing.     Storing  Instincts.     Torpidity. 

HYBERNATION  OF  MAN. 

Privation  stimulates  his  Faculties.  Provisions  for  his  Comfort.  Adaptation 
of  his  Constitution  to  the  Season,  xi.  Sunday. — The  Unceasing  and  Universal 
Providence  of  God. 

INHABITANTS  OF  THE  POLAR  REGIONS. 

The  Esquimaux.    Food  and  Clothing.     Dwellings  and  Fire. 

FROST. 

Provision  for  causing  Ice  to  Float  on  the  Surface.  The  Expansive  and  Non^ 
conducting  Power  of  Ice.  Amusements  connected  with  it.  xii.  Sunday.^— 
Winter  not  Monotonous. — Boundless  Variety  of  Nature.  Effects  of  Frost  in  the 
Northern  Regions.  Agency  of  Frost  in  Mountainous  Regions.  Hoar  Frost. — 
Foliations  on  Window-Glass,  &c.  Beneficent  Contrivances  relative  to  Snow. 
Sagacity  and  Fidelity  of  the  Dog  in  Snow. 

GEOLOGY. 

Its  Phenomena  consistent  with  the  Mosaic  Account  of  the  Creation,  xiii. 
Sunday. — The  Difficulty  of  Comprehending  the  Operations  of  Providence.  Suc- 
cessive Periods  of  Deposit.  Successive  Periods  of  Organized  Existences.  State 
of  the  Antediluvian  World.  Indications  of  the  Action  of  the  Deluge  at  the  Period 
assigned  to  it  in  Scripture.  Cuvier's  Calculation  respecting  the  Deluge.  Effecta 
of  the  Deluge  on  the  Present  Surface  of  the  Earth,  xiv.  Sunday. — The  Deluge 
a  Divine  Judgement. 


VOL.  II.— SPRING. 

COSMICAL  ARRANGEMENTS. 

General  Character  of  Spring  in  temperate  Climates.  Increasing  Temperature 
of  the  Weather,  and  its  Effects.  Color  and  Figure  of  Bodies.  Mountains.  Rain. 
Springs,     i.  SvNnxv.— Advantages  of  Vicissitude.     Rivers. 

REPRODUCTION  OF  VEGETABLES. 

Vegetable  Soil.    Vegetation.     Preservation  and  Distribution  of  Seeds.     Long 

Vitality  of  Seeds.     Developement  of  Seeds  and  Plants,     ii.  Sunday Analogy 

of  Nature.  The  Vital  Powers  of  Plants.  Flowers.— Their  Form,  Color,  and 
Fragrance.  Their  Organs  of  Reproduction,  and  their  Secretion  of  Honey.  The 
Violet. 

REPRODUCTION  OF  ANIMALS. 

The  Animal  Structure.— Cellular  Texture— Membranes,  Tendons,  and  Liga- 
ments.    Secretion,  Digestion,  and  the  Circulation  of  the  Blood,     iii.  Sunday. 

'■^  The  Same  Lord  over  All."  The  Animal  Structure.  Gastric  Juice.  Muscular 
Power.  Nature  of  the  Proof  of  Creative  Wisdom  derived  from  the  Animal  Frame. 
The  Lower  Orders  of  Animals.     The  Higher  Orders  of  Animals. 

INSTINCTS  CONNECTED  WITH  THE  REPRODUCTION  OF  ANIMALS. 

General  Remarks.  Parental  Affection.  Insects.— Their  Eggs.  iv.  Sunday. 
-On  the  Uniformity  or  Sameness  in  the  Natural  and  Moral  World.  Insects.— 
Care  of  their  Offspring,  exemplified  in  Bees  and  Wasi)s.  The  Moth.  The  Bury- 
ing-Beetle.  The  Ant.  Gall  Flies.  Deposition  of  Eggs  in  the  Bodies  of  Animals, 
and  in  Insects'  Nests.  Birds.— Their  Eggs.  Prospective  Contrivances,  v.  Sun- 
day.—O/i  the  Domestic  Affections.  Birds.— Relation  of  their  Bodies  to  external 
Nature.  Pairing.  Nest-building.  The  Grossbeak.  The  Humming-bird.  vi. 
^vsTiKy.— Regeneration.  Birds.— Nests  of  Swallows.  Hatching  of  Eg-^s,  and 
rearing  the  Brood,  auadrupeds.— The  Lion.    The  Rabbit.     Instincts  of  the  Young. 


Man.— Effects  of  protracted  Childhood  on  the  Individual.    Effects  of  protracted 
Childhood  on  the  Parents  and  on  Society,    vii.  Sunday. — On  Christian  Love. 

AGRICULTURE. 

The  Difference  between  the  Operations  of  Reason  and  Instinct,  as  affording 
Arguments  in  Favor  of  the  Divine  Perfections.  Origin  of  Agricultural  Labor. 
Origin  of  Property  in  the  Soil,  and  the  Division  of  Ranks.  Effects  of  Property 
in  the  Soil.  Benetits  derived  from  the  Principles  which  Stimulate  Agricultural 
Improvement.  The  Blessings  of  Labor,  viii.  Sunday. — Spiritual  Training  by 
Affliction.  Nature  of  Soils.  Formation  of  Soils.  Management  of  Soils.— Drain- 
ing. Irrigation.  Blair-Drnmmond  Moss.  Products  of  the  Soil. — Dissemination 
of  Plants.  IX.  Sunday.— TAe  Sower.  Dissemination  of  Plants. — The  Cocoa- 
Nut  Tree.  Mitigation  of  Seasons  occasioned  by  Cultivation.  The  Labors  of  the 
Husbandman  wisely  distributed  over  the  Year.  The  Corn  Plants.— Their  Mys- 
terious Origin.  Their  Distribution  over  the  Globe.  Wheat,  x.  Sunday.— Safc- 
bath  Morning.  The  Corn-Plants.— Barley,  Oats,  Rice,  Maize,  and  Millet. 
Leguminous  Plants. — Peas  and  Beans.  Esculent  Roots.— The  Potato.  Vegetable 
Substances  used  for  Weaving.  The  Flax  Plant,  xx.  Sunday. — True  Science  the 
Handmaid  of  Relision.  Vegetable  Substances  used  for  Weaving.  The  Cotton 
Plant.  Vegetable^  Substances  used  for  Cordage.— Hemp.  Vegetable  Substances 
used  for  Pai)er. 

anniversary  of  the  death  and  resurrection  of  CHRIST. 

The  Sacrament  of  the  Supper.  The  Crucifixion.  The  Grave,  xii.  Sunday. 
— The  Resurrection. 

Enjoyment  equally  Distributed.  The  Enjoyments  of  the  Poor  in 
Spring.    The  Woods. 

retrospective  view  of  the  argument. 

The  Power  and  Intelligence  of  the  Creator.  The  Goodness  of  the  Creator. 
The  Use  and  Deficiency  of  Natural  Religion. 


VOL.  III.— SUMMER. 

COSMICAL  ARRANGEMENTS. 

I.  Sunday.— SM7n?ner  the  Perfection  of  the  Year.  Increased  Heat.  Internal 
Heat  of  the  Earth.  Increased  Light.  Electricity.  Clouds.  Dew.  ii.  Sun- 
day.—5cr/;?«itra^  Allusions  to  the  Dew.  Adaptations  of  the  Faculties  of  Living 
Beings  to  the  Properties  of  Light  and  Air. 

VEGETABLES. 

Growth  of  Vegetables.  Principles  on  which  Horticulture  is  founded.  History 
of  Horticulture.  The  Turnip.  Brassica  or  Cabbage,  in.  Sunday. — Spiritual 
Light.  Various  Garden  Vegetables.  Flowers— The  Rose.  Fruits.  Ingrafting. 
The  Gooseberry  and  Currant.  TheOrchanl.  iv.  Sunday. — Spiritual  Soil.  Pro- 
ductions of  Warm  Climates  used  for  Human  Food. — The  Banana.  The  Date  Palm. 
Trees  used  for  other  Purposes  than  Food.  Vegetable  Substances  used  in  Tan- 
ning. Vegetable  Fixed  Oils.  Vegetable  Oils— Essential  and  Empyreumatic. 
Vegetable  Tallow  and  Wax.  v.  Sunday. — Spiritual  Culture.  Vegetable  Life 
in  the  Polar  Regions. 

ANIMALS. 

Connexion  between  the  Vegetable  and  Animal  Kingdoms.  The  Sensorial  Or- 
gans. Sensation  and  Perception.  The  Argonaut  and  Nautilus.  The  Coral  In- 
sect. VI.  Sunday. — The  Invisible  Architect.  Insect  Transformations — Cocoons 
— The  Silk-Worm.  Insects— Their  Larva  State.  Their  Pupa  or  Chrysalis  State. 
Their  Imago  or  Perfect  Slate.  The  Building  Spider.  Spider's  Webb.  vii.  Sun- 
day.— Spiritual  Transformation.  Insects — Legionary  and  Sanguine  Ants.  The 
Lion  Ant — The  Q,ueen-Bee.  Physiological  Character  of  Vertebrated  Animals. 
Reptiles— The  Tortoise— The  Serpent,  viii.  Sunday. — The  Old  Serpent.  Rep- 
tiles—The Saurian  Tribes.  Birds— Their  Relative  Position.  The  Bill.  Their 
Power  of  Flying.  Their  Power  of  Vision.  Their  Voice.  Their  Selection  of 
Food.  IX.  Sunday. — The  Ascension  of  Christ.  Birds — Their  Gregarious  Habits. 
Domestic  Fowls— The  Cock,  the  Turkey,  and  the  Peacock.  The  Goose  and  the 
Duck.     Birds  of  Prey — The  Vulture.     The  Eagle.     Predaceous  Animals— Their 


Offices  in  Nature,  x.  Sunday. — Christ  the  Judze  of  the  World.  Quadrupeds— 
Their  Characteristics.  Their  Bodily  Organs.  The  Bat.  The  Mouse.  Ruminat- 
ing— The  Goat  and  Sheep.  Sheep  Sliearing.  xi.  Sunday. — Christ,  the  Good 
Shepherd.  Quadrupeds — The  Shejjherd's  Dog.  Ruminating — The  Cow.  Thick- 
skinned — The  Hog.  The  Horse  and  Ass.  The  Elephant.  Reflections  on  the 
Domestic  Animals,  xii.  Sunday. — The  Destruction  of  the  fVorld,  and  the 
Renovation  of  the  Human  Frame  in  a  Future  State.  Fishes.  Man — His  Ex- 
ternal Structure.  His  Intellectual  Powers.  His  Moral  Powers.  Physical  EfTects 
of  Climate.  Moral  EfTects  of  Climate,  xiii.  Sunday. — The  Confusion  of 
Tongues.     Man — Human  Language. 

Haymaking— Pleasures  of  Rural  Scenery. 

The  Variety,  Beauty,  and  Utility  of  Organized  Existences. 

retrospective  view  of  the  argument. 
Adaptation.     Future  Existence.     Discipline. 
XIV.  Sunday. — The  Day  of  Pentecost — One  Language. 


VOL.  IV.— AUTUMN. 

PHENOMENA,  PRODUCE,  AND  LABORS  OF  THE  SEASON. 

General  Character  of  Autumn.  Autumn  in  the  City.  Famine  in  the  beginning 
of  Autumn.  Autumnal  Vegetation.  Progress  of  Vegetation  in  the  Corn  Plants. 
Harvest,  i.  Sunday.  Stability  of  Nature.  Gleaning.  The  Harvest  Moon. 
Harvest-Home.     Storing  of  Corn.     Birds. — Their  State  in  Autumn. 

THE  WOODS. 

Their  Autumnal  Appearance,    ii.  Sunday. — The  Powers  of  the  World  to  come. 
The  Woods.     Their  Uses.     Various  Kinds  and  Adaptations  of  Timber. 
Origin  of  the  Arts. — Food,  Clothing,  and  Shelter. 

human  food. 
Its  Principle.  The  Moral  Operation  of  the  Principle.  Its  Supply  not  inad- 
equate. III.  Sunday. — Christians  '■'■Members  one  of  another.''''  Provision  for 
the  future. — Soil  still  uncultivated.  Improved  Cultivation.  Means  now  in  Ex- 
istence. Vegetable  and  Animal  Food.  Fruits — Their  Qualities.  Drink,  iv. 
Sunday.— "  TAe  BremZ  o/ A.i/e."  Milk.  Wine.  Tea  and  Cofiee.  Sugar.  The 
Pleasures  connected  with  Food.  Comparison  between  the  Food  of  Savage  and 
Civilized  Man.  v.  Sunday. — "  Give  us  this  Day  our  daily  Bread."  Agriculture 
of  the  Greeks.— Their  Harvest.  Agriculture  of  the  Romans.  Their  Harvest. 
Progress  of  British  Agriculture.     Modern  Continental  Agriculture. 

HUMAN  CLOTHING. 

Its  Principle.  Its  Primitive  State,  vi.  Sunday. — The  Emptiness  of  Human 
Attainments.  Its  Ancient  History.  Commercial  History  of  the  Raw  Material. 
The  Silk  Manufacture. — Its  Modern  History.  History  of  Mechanical  Contrivances 
connected  with  it.  Rearing  of  the  Cocoons,  &;c.  The  Cotton  Manufacture. — Its 
Foreign  History,  vii.  Sunday. — The  Intellectual  and  Moral  Enjoyments  of 
Heaven.  The  Cotton  Manufacture — Its  British  History.  Improvement  of  Ma- 
chinery. Its  American  History. — Introduction  of  Steam  Power.  The  Woollen 
Manufacture. — Its  History.  The  Art  of  Bleaching.  The  Art  of  Dyeing. — Its 
Origin  and  Ancient  History,  viii.  Sunday. — The  Social  and  Religious  Enjoy- 
ments of  Heaven.  The  Art  of  Dyeing. — Its  Modern  History.  Its  Chemical 
Principles. 

ARCHITECTURE. 

Its  Principle.  Its  original  State. — Materials  employed.  Tools  employed.  Its 
Modifications  by  the  Influence  of  Habit  and  Religion,  ix.  Sunday. — The  Chil- 
dren of  the  World  iviser  than  the  Children  of  Light.  Architecture. — Ancient  His- 
tory and  Practice. — Egypt. — Thebes.  The  Pyramids.  India. — Excavated  Temples. 
Central  Asia. — Tower  of  Babel,  or  Temple  of  Belus.  Babylon.  Nineveh.  Petra. 
Greece,  x.  Sttnday. — Divine  Strength  made  perfect  in  Human  Weakness.  Rome. 
The  Gothic  Style.  Britain.  Bridges.  Aqueducts.  Railways,  xi.  Sunday. — An 
Autumnal  Sabbath  Evening.  Prospective  Imi)rovement  of  Locomotive  Power. 
Lighthouses— The   Eddystone   Lighthouse.     The  Thames  Tunnel. 


CLOSE  OF  AUTUMN. 

Miscellaneous  Reflections  on  Autumnal  Appearances.    The  Landscape  at  the 
Close  of  Autumn,     xii.     Sunday. — The  Fall  of  the  Leaf . 


GENERAL  SUMMARY  OF  THE  ARGUMENT. 


Government  of  the  World  bj'  General  Laws.  Government  of  the  World  by  a 
Particular  Providence.  Contrast  between  Savage  and  Civilized  Life,  as  regards 
the  Arts.  As  regards  Domestic  Comforts.  As  regards  Commerce.  As  regards 
Moral  Cultivation,    xiii.  Sunday. — '■'■The  Harvest  is  the  End  of  the  f For  id.^^ 


The  preceding  ten  volumes  are  now  ready  for  delivery  ;- 
and  they  will  be  followed,  with  all  due  despatch,  by  the 
subjoined,  among  others,  provided  they  are  approved  by 
the  Board  of  Education. 

LIFE  OF  WASHINGTON,  (with  a  portrait,  and  nu- 
merous engravings,)  by  the  Rev.  Charles  W.  Up  ham, 
Author  of  '  ike  Life  of  Sir  Henry  Vane,'' 

THE  PURSUIT  OF  KNOWLEDGE  UNDER  DIF- 
FICULTIES ;  in  two  volumes,  with  Preface  and  Notes, 
by  Francis  Wayland,  D.  D.,  President  of  Brown  Uni- 
versity. 

THE  PURSUIT  OF  KNOWLEDGE  UNDER  DIF- 
FICULTIES, illustrated  by  incidents  in  the  Lives  of 
American  Individuals  ;  in  one  volume,  with  Portraits. 

HUMAN  PHYSIOLOGY,  in  two  volumes,  with  illustra- 
tive wood  cuts,  by  Robley  Dunglison,  M.  D.,  Professor 
of  the  Institutes  of  Medicine  in  the  Jefferson  Medical  College, 
Philadelphia ;  Author  of  '  Elements  of  Hygiene, '  '  The  Medi- 
cal Student,'  'Principles  of  Medical  Practice,'  Sfc.  <^c. 

CHEMISTRY,  with  illustrative  wood  cuts,  by  Benja- 
min Silliman,  M.  D.,  LL.  D.,  Professor  of  Chemistry, 
Mineralogy,  Sfc.  in  Yale  College. 

ASTRONOMY,  by  Dennison  Olmsted,  Professor  of 
JVatural  Philosophy  and  Astronomy  in  Yale  College. 

This  work  will  be  a  popular  treatise  on  the  Science  ;  it  will  also  enter 
fully  into  its  history,  and  consider  the  subject  of  Natural  Theology,  so 
far  as  it  is  related  to  Astronomy. 

NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY,  by  Professor  Olmsted. 
Both  of  these  works  will  be  very  fully  illustrated  by  diagrams  and 
wood  engravings. 


9 

THE  USEFUL  ARTS,  considered  in  connexion  with 
the  AppHcations  of  Science;  in  two  volumes,  with  many- 
cuts,  by  Jacob  Bigelow,  M.  D.,  Professor  of  Materia 
Medica  in  Harvard  University,  Author  of  '  the  Elements  of 
Technology,'  Sfc.  Sfc. 

We  subjoin  a  summary  of  the  Topics  discussed  in  the  several  chap- 
ters of  this  Important  Work,  that  its  nature  and  objects  may  be  the 
more  clearly  understood. 

CHAPTER  I. 

Outline  of  the  History  of  the  Arts  in  Ancient  and  Modern  Times. 

Arts  of  the  Egyptians,  Assyrians,  Jews,  Hindoos,  Chinese,  Greeks,  Romans, 
Dark  Ages,  Modern  Times,  Nineteenth  Century. 

CHAPTER  n. 

Of  the  Materials  used  in  the  Arts. 

Materials  from  the  Mineral  Kingdom — Stones  and  Earths — Marble,  Granite, 
Sienite,  Freestone,  Slate,  Soapstone,  Serpentine,  Gypsum,  Alabaster,  Chalk, 
Fluor  Spar,  Flint,  Porphyry,  Buhrstone,  Novaculite,  Precious  Stones,  Emery, 
Lead,  Pumice,  Tufa,  Peperino,  Tripoli,  Clay,  Asbestus,  Cements,  Limestone, 
Puzzolana,  Tarras.  Other  Cements — Maltha.  Metals — Iron,  Copper,  Lead,  Tin, 
Mercury,  Gold,  Silver,  Platina,  Zinc,  Antimony,  Bismuth,  Arsenic,  Manganese, 
Nickel.  Combustibles,  &c — Bitumen,  Amber,  Coal,  Anthracite,  Graphite,  Peat, 
Sulphur.  Materials  from  the  Vegetable  Kingdom — Wood,  Bark,  Oak,  Hickory, 
Ash,  Elm,  Locust,  Wild  Cherry,  Chestnut,  Beech,  Basswood,  Tulip  Tree,  Maple, 
Birch,  Button  Wood,  Persimmon,  Black  Walnut,  Tupelo,  Pine,  Spruce,  Hemlock, 
White  Cedar,  Cypress,  Larch,  Arbor  Vitae,  Red  Cedar,  Willow,  Mahogany, 
Boxwood,  Lignum  Vitre,  Cork,  Hemp,  Flax,  Cotton,  Turpentine,  Caoutchouc, 
Oils,  Resins,  Starch,  Gum.  Materials  from  the  Animal  Kingdom — Skins,  Hair, 
and  Fur,  Quills  and  Feathers,  Wool,  Silk,  Bone  and  Ivory,  Horn,  Tortoise  Shell, 
Whale  Bone,  Glue,  Oil,  Wax,  Phosphorus.  Materials  used  in  Painting,  Dyeing, 
and  Varnishing. 

CHAPTER  III. 

Of  the  Form  and  Strength  of  Materials. 

Modes  of  Estimation,  Stress  and  Strain,  Resistance,  Extension,  Compression, 
Lateral  Strain,  Stiffness,  Tubes,  Strength,  Place  of  Strain,  Incipient  Fractiu-e, 
Shape  of  Timber,  Torsion,  Limit  of  Bulk,  Practical  Remarks. 

CHAPTER  IV. 

The  Preservation  of  Materials. 

Stones,  Metals,  Organic  Substances,  Temperature,  Dryness,  Wetness,  Antisep- 
tics. Timber — Felling,  Seasoning.  Preservation  of  Timber. — Preservation  of 
Animal  Texture — Embalming,  Tanning,  Parchment,  Catgut,  Gold  Beater's  Skin. 
Specimens  in  Natural  History— Appert's  Process. 

CHAPTER  V. 

Of  Dividing  and  Uniting  Materials. 

Cohesion.  Modes  of  Division — Fracture,  Cutting  Machines,  Penetration,  Bor- 
ing and  Drilling,  Turning,  Attrition,  Sawing,  Saw  Mill,  Circular  Saw,  Crushing, 
Stamping  Mill,  Bark  Mill,  Oil  Mill,  Sugar  Mill,  Cider  Mill,  Grinding,  Grist  Mill, 
Color  Mill,  Modes  of  Union — Insertion,  Interposition,  Binding,  Locking,  Ce- 
menting, Glueing,  Welding,  Soldering,  Casting,  Fluxes,  Moulds. 


10 

CHAPTER  VI. 

Of  Changing  the  Color  of  Materials. 

Of  Applying  Superficial  Color — Painting,  Colors,  Preparation,  Application, 

Crayons,  Water  Colors,  Distemper,  Fresco,  Encaustic   Painting,  Oil   Painting, 

Varnishing,  Japanning,  Polishing,  Lacquering,  Gilding.     Of  Changing  Intrinsic 

Color — Bleaching,  Photogenic  Drawing,  Dyeing,  Mordants,  Dyes,  Calico  Printing. 

CHAPTER  VII. 

The  Arts  of  Writing  and  Printing. 

Letters.  Invention  of  Letters,  Arrangement  of  Letters,  Writing  Materials, 
Papyrus,  Herculaneum,  Manuscripts,  Parchment,  Paper,  Instruments,  Ink,  Copy 
ing  Machines,  Printing,  Types,  Cases,  Sizes,  Composing,  Imposing,  Signatures, 
Correcting  the  Press,  Press  Work,  Printing  Press,  Stereotyping,  Machine  Print- 
ing.   History. 

CHAPTER  VIII, 
Arts  of  Designing  and  Painting. 

Divisions,  Perspective,  Field  of  Vision,  Distance  and  Foreshortening,  Defini- 
tions, Plate  II— Problems,  Instrumental,  Perspective,  Mechanical  Perspective, 
Perspectographs,  Projections,  Isometrical  Perspective,  Chiaro  Oscuro,  Light  and 
Shade,  Association,  Direction  of  Light,  Reflected  Light,  Expression  of  Shape. 
Eyes  of  a  Portrait— Shadows,  Aerial  Perspective,  Coloring,  Colors,  Shades,  Tone, 
Harmony,  Contrast,    Remarks. 

CHAPTER  IX. 

Arts  of  Engraving  and  Lithography. 

Engraving,  Origin,  Materials,  Instruments,  Styles,  Line,  Engraving,  Medal 
Ruling,  Stippling,  Etching,  Mezzo-tinto,  Aqua  Tinta,  Copperplate  Printing,  Col- 
ored Engravings,  Steel  Engraving,  Wood  Engraving.  Lithography — Principles, 
Origin,  Lithographic  Stones,  Preparation,  Lithographic  Ink  and  Chalk,  Mode  of 
Drawing,  Etching  the  Stone,  Printing,  Printing  Ink.    Remarks. 

CHAPTER  X. 

Of  Sculpture,  Modelling,  and  Casting. 

Subjects— Modelling,  Casting  in  Plaster,  Bronze  Casting,  Practice  of  Sculpture, 
Materials,  Objects  of  Sculpture,  Gem  Engraving,  Cameos,  Intaglios,  Mosaic, 
Scagliola. 

CHAPTER  XI. 
Of  Architecture  and  Building. 

Architecture— Elements,  Foundations,  Column,  Wall,  Lintel,  Arch,  Abutments, 
Arcade,  Vault,  Dome,  Plate  I,  Roof,  Styles  of  Building,  Definitions,  Measures, 
Drawings,  Restorations,  Egyptian  Style,  The  Chinese  Style,  The  Grecian  Style, 
Orders  of  Architecture — Doric  Order,  Ionic  Order,  Corinthian  Order,  Caryatides, 
Grecian  Temple,  Grecian  Theatre,  Remarks,  Plate  IV,  Roman  Style,  Tuscan 
Order,  Roman  Doric,  Roman  Ionic,  Composite  Order,  Roman  Structures.  Re- 
marks, Plate  V,  Greco-Gothic  Style,  Saracenic  Style,  Gothic  Style,  Definitions, 
Plate  VI,  Plate  VII,  Application. 

CHAPTER  XII. 

Arts  of  Heating  and  Ventilation. 

Production  of  Heat— Fue\,  Weight  of  Fuel,  Combustible  Matter  of  Fuel,  Water 
in  Fuel,  Charcoal,  Communication  of  Heat,  Radiated  and  Conducted  Heat,  Fire 
in  the  Open  Air,  Fire  Places,  Admission  of  Cold  Air,  Open  Fires,  Franklin  Stove, 
Rnmford  Fire  Place,  Double  Fire  Place,  Coal  Grate,  Anthracite  Grate,  Burns' 
Grate,  Building  a  Fire,  Furnaces,  Stoves,  Russian  Stove,  Cockle,  Cellar  Stoves, 
and  Air  Flues,  Heating  by  Water,  Heating  by  Steam,  Retention  of  Heat,  Causes 
of  Loss,  Crevices,  Chimneys,  Entries  and  Sky  Lights,  Windows,  Ventilation,  Oh- 
jects,  Modes,  Ventilators,  Culverts,  Smoky  Rooms,  Damp  Chimneys,  Large  Fire 


11 

Places,  Close  Rooms,  Contiguous  Doors,  Short  Chimneys,  Opposite  Fire  Places, 
Neighboring  Eminences,  Turncap,  &c..  Contiguous  FIues.Buruing  of  Smoke. 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

Arts  of  Illumination. 

Flame — Support  of  Flame,  Torches  and  Candles,  Lamps,  Reservoirs,  Astral 
Lamp,  Hydrostatic  Lamps,  Automaton  Lamp,  Mechanical  Lamps,  Fountain  Lamp, 
Argand  Lamp,  Reflectors,  Hanging  of  Pictures,  Transparency  of  Flame,  Glass 
Shades,  Sinumbral  Lamp,  Measurement  of  Light,  Gas  Lights,  Coal  Gas,  Oil  Gas, 
Gasometer,  Portable  Gas  Lights,  Safety  Lamp,  Lamp  without  Flame,  Modes  of 
procuring  Light. 

CHAPTER  XIV. 

Arts  of  Locomotion. 

Motion  of  Animals,  Inertia,  Aids  to  Locomotion,  Wheel  Cariages.  Wheels,  Rol- 
lers, Size  of  Wheels,  Line  of  Traction,  Broad  Wh^-els,  Forn?  of  Wheels,  Axletrees, 
Springs,  Attaching  of  Horses,  Highways,  Roads,  Pavements,  McAdam  Roads, 
Bridges,  1,  Wooden  Bridges,  2,  Stone  Bridges,  3,  Cast  Iron  Bridges,  4,  Suspen- 
sion Bridges,  5,  Floating  Bridges,  Rail  Roads,  Edge  Railway,  Tram  Road,  Single 
Rail,  Passings,  Propelling  Power,  Locomotive  Engines,  Canals,  Embankments, 
Aqueducts,  Tunnels,  Gates  and  Weirs,  Locks,  Boats,  Size  of  Canals,  Sailing;  Form 
of  a  Ship,  Keel  and  Rudder,  Effect  of  the  Wind,  Stability  of  a  Ship,  Steam  Boats, 
Diving  Bell,  Submarine  Navigation,  Aerostation,  Balloon,  Parachute. 

CHAPTER  XV. 

Elements  of  Machinery. 

Machines,  Motion,  Rotary  or  Circular  Motion,  Band  Wheels,  Rag  Wheels, 
Toothed  Wheels,  Spiral  Gear,  Bevel  Gear,  Crown  Wheel,  Universal  Joint,  Per- 
petual Screw,  Brush  Wheels,  Ratchet  Wheel,  Distant  Rotary  Motion,  Change  of 
Velocity,  Fusee,  Alternate  or  Reciprocating  Motion,  Cams,  Crank,  Parallel  Mo- 
tion, Sun  and  Planet  Wheel,  Inclined  Wheel,  Epicycloidal  Wheel,  Rack  and  Seg- 
ment, Rack  and  Pinion,  Belt  and  Segment,  Scapements,  Continued  Rectilinear 
Motion,  Band,  Rack,  Universal  Lever,  Screw,  Change  of  Direction,  Toggle  Joint, 
Of  Engaging  and  Disengaging  Machinery,  Of  Equalizing  Motion,  Governor, 
Fly  Wheel,  Friction,  Remarks. 

CHAPTER  XVI. 

Of  the  Moving  Forces  used  in  the  Arts. 

Sources  of  Power,  Vehicles  of  Power,  Animal  Power,  Men,  Horses,  Water 
Power,  Overshot  Wheel,  Chain  Wheel,  Undershot  Wheel,  Back  Water,  Besant's 
Wheel,  Lambert's  Wheel,  Breast  Wheel,  Horizontal  Wheel,  Barker's  Mill,  Wind 
Power,  Vertical  Windmill,  Adjustment  of  Sails,  Horizontal  Windmill,  Steam 
Power,  Steam,  Applications  of  Steam,  By  Condensation,  By  Generation,  By  Ex- 
pansion, The  Steam  Engine,  Boiler  Appendages,  Engine,  Noncondeusing  Engine, 
Condensing  Engines,  Description,  Expansion,  Engines,  Valves,  Pistons,  Parallel 
Motion,  Historical  Remarks,  Projected  Improvements,  Rotative  Engines,  Use  of 
Steam  at  High  Temperatures,  Use  of  Vapors  of  Low  Temperature,  Gas  Engines, 
Steam  Carriages,  Steam  Gun,  Gunpowder,  Manufacture,  Detonation,  Force,  Pro- 
perties of  a  Gun,  Blasting. 

CHAPTER  XVII. 

Arts  of  Conveying  Water. 

Of  Conducting  Water — Aqueducts,  Water  Pipes,  Friction  of  Pipes,  Obstruction 
of  Pipes,  Syphon,  Of  Raising  Water,  Scoop  Wheel,  Persian  Wheel,  Noria,  Rope 
Pump,  Hydreole,  Archimedes'  Screw,  Spiral  Pump,  Centrifugal  Pump,  Common 
Pumps,  Forcing  Pumps,  Plunger  Pump,  Delahire's  Pump,  Hydrostatic  Press, 
Lifting  Pump,  Bag  Pump,  Double  Acting  Pump,  Rolling  Pump,  Eccentric  Pump, 
Arrangement  of  Pipes,  Chain  Pump,  Schemnilz  Vessels,  or  Hungarian  Machine, 
Hero's  Fountain,  Atmosjjheric  Machines,  Hydraulic  Ram,  Of  Projecting  Water. 
Fountains,  Fire  Engines,  Throwing  Wheel. 


12 

CHAPTER  XVIII. 

Arts  of  Combining  Flexible  Fibres. 

Theory  of  Twisting,  Rope  Making,  Cotton  Manufacture,  Elementary  Inven- 
tions, Batting,  Ciirilins.  Drawing.  Roving,  Spinning,  Mule  Spinning,  Warping, 
Dressing,  Weaving,  Twilling,  Double  Weaving,  Cross  Weaving,  Lace,  Carpeting, 
Tapestry,  Velvets,  Linens,  Woolens.,  Felting,  Paper  Making. 

CHAPTER  XIX. 

Arts   of  Horology. 

Sun  Dial,  Clepsydra,  Water  Clock,  Clock  Work,  Maintaining  Power,  Regulat- 
ing Movement,  Pendulum,  Balance,  Scapemenl,  Description  of  a  Clock,  Striking 
Part,  Description  of  a  Watch. 

CHAPTER  XX. 

Arts   of  Metallurgy. 

Extraction  of  Metals,  Assaying,  Alloys,  Gold,  Extraction,  Cupellation,  Parting, 
Cementation,  Alloy,  Working,  Gold  Beating,  Gilding  on  Metals,  Gold  Wire, 
Silver,  Extraction,  Working,  Coining,  Plating,  Copper,  Extraction,  Working, 
Brass,  Manufacture,  Buttons,  Pins,  Bronze,  Le«S,  Extraction,  Manufacture,  Sheet 
Lead,  Lead  Pipes,  Leaden  Shot,  Tin,  Block  Tin,  Tin  Plates,  Silvering  of  Mirrors, 
Iron,  Smelting,  Crude  Iron,  Casting,  Malleai)le  Iron,  Forging,  Rolling  and  Slit- 
ting, Wire  Drawing,  Nail  Making,  Gun  Making,  Steel,  Alloys  of  Steel,  Case  Hard- 
ening, Tempering,  Cutlery. 

CHAPTER  XXI. 

Arts  of  Vitrification. 

Glass,  Materials,  Crown  Glass,  Fritting,  Melting,  Blowing,  Annealing,  Broad 
Glass,  Flint  Glass,  Bottle  Glass,  Cylinder  Glass,  Plate  Glass,  Moulding,  Pressing, 
Cutting,  Stained  Glass,  Enamelling,  Artificial  Gems,  Devitrification,  Reaumur's 
Porcelain,  Crystallo-Ceramie,  Glass  Thread,  Remarks. 

CHAPTER  XXII. 

Arts  of  Induration  by  Heat. 

Bricks,  Tiles,  Terra  Cotta,  Crucibles,  Pottery,  Operations,  Stone  Ware,  White 
Ware,  Throwing,  Pressing,  Casting,  Burning,  Printing,  Glazing,  China  Ware, 
European  Porcelain,  Etruscan  Vases. 

A  FAMILIAR  TREATISE  ON  THE  CONSTITU- 
TION OF  THE  UNITED  STATES,  by  the  Hon.  Judge 
Story,  L  L.  D.,  Jluthor  of  '  Commentaries  on  the  Constitu- 
tion,^ S^'c. 

LIFE  OF  DR.  FRANKLIN. 

SELECTIONS  FROM  THE  WRITINGS  OF 
FRANKLIN,  by  Jared  Sparks,  L  L.  D.,  Professor  of  His- 
tory in  Harvard  University,  Jluthor  of  '  the  Life  and  IVHtings 
of  Washington, '  '  the  Life  and  JVritijigs  of  Franklin, '  &^c  .c^c. 

CHRISTIANITY  AND  KNOWLEDGE,  by  the  Rev. 

Royal  Robbins. 

The  design  of  this  Work  is  to  show  what  Christianity  has  done  for 
the  human  intellect,  and  what  that  has  done  for  Christianity. 


13 

THE  LORD  OF  THE  SOIL,  OR,  PICTURES  OF 
AGRICULTURAL  LIFE;  by  Rev.  Warren  Burton, 
Author  of '  The  District  School  as  it  Was,'  S^c.  Sfc. 

SCIENCE  AND  THE  ARTS,  by  the  Rev.  Alonzo 

Potter,  D.  D.,  Professor  of  Moral  Philosophy  and  Rhetoric, 
in  Union  College,  Schenectady,  JV.  Y. 

The  design  of  this  Work  is  to  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  Arts 
are  the  result  of  intelligence — that  they  have,  each  one  its  principles 
or  theory — that  these  principles  are  furnished  by  Science,  and  that  he, 
therefore,  who  would  understand  the  Arts,  must  know  something  of 
Science  ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  he  who  would  see  the  true  power 
and  worth  of  Science  ought  to  study  it  in  its  applications.  The  work 
will  be  made  up  o£ facts,  illustrating  and  enforcing  these  views — so  ar- 
ranged as  to  exhibit  the  invariable  connexion  between  processes  in  Art, 
and  laws  in  JVature.  The  importance  of  such  a  work  requires  no 
comment. 

AGRICULTURE,  by  the  Hon.  Judge  Buel,  of  Albany, 
Editor  of  '  the  Cultivator. ' 

This  Work  is  intended  as  an  aid  to  the  Young  Farmer,  and  from 
the  known  character  of  the  gentleman  who  has  it  in  hand,  there  can  be 
no  doubt  but  that  it  will  be  executed  in  a  highly  satisfactory  manner. 
The  following,  among  other  subjects,  will  be  therein  treated  of,  viz. 

1.  The  Importance  of  Agriculture  to  a  Nation. 

2.  Improvement  in  our  Agriculture  practicable  and  necessary, 

3.  Some  of  the  principles  of  the  new  and  improved  Husbandry. 

4.  Agriculture  considered  as  an  Employment. 

5.  Earths  and  Soils. 

6.  Improvement  of  the  Soil. 

7-  Analogy  between  Animal  and  Vegetable  Nutrition. 

8.  Further  Improvement  of  the  Soil. 

9.  "  "  by  Manures,  Animal  and  Vegetable. 

10.  "  "  by  Mineral  Manures. 

11.  Principles  and  Operations  of  Draining. 

12.  Principles  of  Tillage. 

13    Operations  of  Tillage,  &c.  Ac- 
Due  notice  will  also  be  taken  of  alternating  crops,  root  husbandry,  mixed  hus- 
bandry, the  management  of  pasture  and  meadow  lands,  the  garden,  orchard,  &c. 
Cuts,  illustrative  of  the  various  operations  spoken  of  and  recommended,  will 
be  given. 

GEOLOGY  AND  MINERALOGY,  by  Charles  T. 
Jackson,  M.  D.,  Geological  Surveyor  of  Maine  and  Rhode 
Island. 

STATISTICS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES,  by 
George  Tucker,  Professor  of  Moral  Philosophy  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Virginia,  Author  of  '  the  Life  of  Jefferson,'  Sfc.  Sfc. 


14 

AMERICAN  TREES  AND  PLANTS,  used  for  medi- 
cinal and  economical  purposes  and  employed  in  the  Arts, 
with  numerous  engravings  ;  by  Professor  Jacob  Bigelow, 
Author  of  '  Plants  of  Boston,^  '  Medical  Botany,'  S^c.  Sfc. 

MORAL  EFFECTS  OF  INTERNAL  IMPROVE- 
MENTS, by  Robert  Rantoul,  Jr.,  Esq. 

LIVES  OF  THE  REFORMERS,  by  Rev.  Romeo  El- 
ton, Professor-  of  Languages  in  Brown  University. 

BIOGRAPHICAL  SKETCHES  OF  DISTINGUISH- 
ED FEMALES,  by  Mrs.  Emma  C.  Embury,  of  Brookhjn, 
JV.  F. 

SKETCHES  OF  AMERICAN  CHARACTER,  by 
Mrs.  Sarah  J.  Hale,  Editor  of  '  the  Ladies' Book,'  Author 
of  the  ^Ladies'  Wreath,'  '  Flor-a's  Interpreter,'  S^c.  4'c. 

DO  RIGHT  AND  HAVE  RIGHT,  by  Mrs.  Almira 
H.  Lincoln  Phelps,  Principal  of  the  Literary  Department 
of  the  Young  Ladies'  Seminary,  at  West  Chester,  Pa., 
formerly  of  the  Troy  Seminary,  JY.  Y.,  Author  of  'Familiar 
Lectures  on  Botany,'  'Female  Student,'  S^c. 

The  object  of  this  Work  may  be  gathered  from  the  following  re- 
marks of  Mrs.  Phelps.  "  A  popular  work  on  the  principles  of  law,  witli 
stories  illustrating  these  principles,  might  be  very  profitable  to  people 
in  common  life,  as  well  as  to  children.  The  ward  cheated  by  a  guard- 
ian, the  widow  imposed  on  by  administrators  or  executors,  the  toife 
abandoned  by  a  husband,  with  whom  she  had  trusted  her  paternal  in- 
heritance, the  partner  in  business,  overreached  by  his  crafty  associate, 
for  want  of  a  knowledge  of  the  operations  of  the  law, — all  these  might 
be  exhibited  in  such  a  way  as  to  teach  the  necessity  of  legal  knowledge 
to  both  sexes,  and  to  all  ages  and  classes." 

SCENES  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  JOANNA  OF  SICILY, 
by  Mrs.  E.  F.  Ellet,  of  Columbia,  S.  C. 

This  is  written  with  a  view  to  young  readers,  and  for  the  purpose  of 
illustrating  important  historical  events. 

The  Publishers  have  also  in  preparation  for  this  Series, 
a  History  of  the  United  States,  and  of  other  Countries,  a 
History  of  the  Aborigines  of  our  Country,  a  History  of 
Inventions,  Works  on  Botany,  Natural  History,  &c.  &c. 
Many  distinguished  writers,  not  here  mentioned,  have  been 
engaged,  whose  names  will  be  in  due  time  announced, 
although  at  present,  we  do  not  feel  at  liberty  to  make  them 
public. 


15 

Among  the  works  prepared,  and  in  a  state  of  forward- 
ness, for  the  Juvenile  Series  are  the  following,  viz. 

MEANS  AND  ENDS,  OR  SELF  TRAINING,  by  Miss 
Caroline  Sedgwick,  Author  of  '  The  Poor  Rich  Man, 
and  Rich  Poor  Man,'  '  Live  and  Let  Live,'  '  Home,'  Sfc.  Sfc. 

NEW-ENGLAND  HISTORICAL  SKETCHES,  by 
N.  Hawthorne,  Author  of  Twice  Told  Tales,'  S^^c. 

CONVERSATIONS  AND  STORIES  BY  THE 
FIRE  SIDE,  by  Mrs.  Sa.rah  J.  Hale, 

FAILURE  NOT  RUIN,  by  Horatio  G.  Hale,  A.  M. 

TALES  IN  PROSE,  blending  instruction  with  amuse- 
ment ;  by  Miss  Mary  E,  Lee,  of  Charleston,  S.  C. 

PICTURES  OF  EARLY  LIFE  :— Stories;  each  in- 
culcating some  moral  lesson  ;  by  Mrs.  Emma  C.  Embury, 
ofBrookhjn,  JV.  Y. 

FREDERICK  HASKELL'S  VOYAGE  ROUND 
THE  WORLD,  by  H.  G.  Hale,  A.  M.,  Philologist  to 
the  Exploring  Expedition. 

BIOGRAPHY  FOR  THE  YOUNG,  by  Miss  E.  Rob- 
bins,  Author  of  '  American  Popular  Lessons,'  Sequel  to  the 
same,  Sfc. 

THE  WONDERS  OF  NATURE,  by  A.  J.  Stansbury, 
Esq.,  of  Washington  City  ;   illustrated  by  numerous  cuts. 

WORKS  OF  ART,  by  the  same  ;  illustrated  by  numer- 
ous cuts. 

PLEASURES  OF  TASTE,  and  other  Stories  select- 
ed from  the  Writings  of  Jane  Taylor,  with  a  sketch  of  her 
life,  (and  a  likeness,)  by  Mrs.  S.  J.  Hale. 

SELECTIONS  FROM  THE  WORKS  OF  MRS. 
BARBAULD,  with  a  Life  and  Portrait. 

SELECTIONS  FROM  THE  WORKS  OF  MARIA 
EDGE  WORTH,  luith  a  Life  and  Portrait. 

SELECTIONS  FROM  THE  WORKS  OF  MRS. 
SHERWOOD,  ivithaLife  and  Portrait. 

SELECTIONS  FROM  THE  WORKS  OF  DR. 
AIKIN,  ivith  a  Sketch  of  his  Life,  by  Mrs.  Hale. 

CHEMISTRY  FOR  BEGLVNERS,  by  Benjamin  Sil- 
LiMAN,  Jr.,  Assistaiit  in  the  Department  of  Chemistry,  Min- 
eralogy, and  Geology  in  Yale  College  ;  aided  by  Professor 

SiLLlMAN. 


16 

MY  SCHOOLS  AND  MY  TEACHERS,  by  Mrs.  A. 
H.  Lincoln  Phelps. 

The  author's  design,  in  this  work,  is  to  describe  the  Common  Schools 
as  they  were  in  New-England  at  the  begmning  of  the  present  century  ; 
to  delineate  the  pecuhar  characters  of  different  Teachers  ;  and  to  give 
a  sketch  of  her  various  school  companions,  with  their  progress  in  after 
life,  endeavoring  thereby  to  show  that  the  child,  while  at  school,  is 
forming  the  future  man,  or  woman. 

It  is  not  the  intention  of  the  Publishers  to  drive  these 
works  through  the  Press  with  a  railroad  speed,  in  the  hope 
of  securing  the  market,  by  the  multiplicity  of  the  publica- 
tions cast  upon  the  community;  they  rely  for  patronage, 
upon  the  intrinsic  merits  of  the  works,  and  consequently 
time  must  be  allowed  the  writers  to  mature  and  systematize 
them.  The  more  surely  to  admit  of  this,  the  two  Series 
will  be  issued  in  sets  of  five  and  ten  volumes  at  a  time. 
Besides  the  advantage  above  alluded  to,  that  will  result 
from  such  an  arrangement,  it  will  place  The  School  Li- 
brary within  the  reach  of  those  Districts,  which,  from  the 
limited  amount  of  their  annual  funds,  would  not  otherwise 
be  enabled  to  procure  it. 

The  works  will  be  printed  on  paper  and  with  type  ex- 
pressly manufactured  for  the  Library;  will  be  bound  in 
cloth,  with  leather  backs  and  corners,  having  gilt  titles 
upon  the  backs,  and  for  greater  durability,  cloth  hinges 
inside  of  the  covers. 

The  larger  Series  will  be  furnished  to  Schools,  Academies, 
Slc,  at  sevenhj-Jive  cents  per  volume,  and  the  Juvenile  Sey-ies 
at  forty  cents  per  volume  ;  which  the  Publishers  advisedly 
declare  to  be  cheaper,  than  any  other  series  of  works  that 
can  be  procured  at  home  or  abroad,  bearing  in  mind  their 
high  intellectual  character,  and  the  style  of  their  mechanical 
execution. 

The  Publishers  solicit  orders  from  School  Committees, 
Trustees,  Teachers,  and  others,  for  either  or  both  Series, 
and  wish  particular  directions  how,  to  whom,  and  to  what 
place  the  books  shall  be  forwarded. 

Annexed  are  Specimen  Pages  of  the  two  Series. 


THE  ARTERIES. 


271 


carried  into  the  reservoir,  and  they  fill  it  half  full  of  water, 
C  ;  the  mouth  of  the  pipe,  D,  which  is  to  convey  away 
the  water,  reaches  into  the  water  in  the  reservoir.  As 
the  water  rises,  the  air  is  compressed  :  so  that,  although 
the  pumps  act  alternately,  the  elasticity  of  the  contained 
air  acts  uninterruptedly  in  pressing  on  the  surface  of  the 
water,  and  raising  it  by  the  tube,  D,  in  an  equable  stream. 
The  elasticity  of  the  contained  air,  fills  up  the  interval 
between  the  actions  of  the  pumps,  and  admits  of  no  in- 
terruption to  the  force  with  which  the  water  is  propelled 
upwards. 

Surely  these  are  sufficient  indications  of  the  necessity 
of  three  powers  acting  in  propelling  the  blood  from  the 
heart.  The  first,  is  a  sudden  and  powerful  action  of 
the  ventricle  :  the  second,  is  a  contraction  of  the  artery, 
somewhat  similar,  excited  by  its  distention :  the  third, 
though  a  property  independent  of  fife,  is  a  power  permit- 
ting no  interval  or  alternation  ;  it  is  the  elasticity  of  the 
coats  of  the  artery  :  and  these  three  powers,  duly  adjust- 
ed, keep  up  a  continued  stream  in  the  blood-vessels.  It 
is  true,  that  when  an  artery  is  wounded,  the  blood  flows 


308 


NATURAL   THEOLOGY. 


The  superior  sagacity  of  animals  which  hunt  their 
prey,  and  which,  consequently,  depend  for  their  liveli- 
hood upon  their  nose,  is  well  known  in  its  use  ;  but  not 
at  all  known  in  the  organization  which  produces  it. 

The  external  em^s  of  beasts  of  prey,  of  lions,  tigers, 
wolves,  have  their  trumpet-part,  or  concavity,  standing 
forward,  to  seize  the  sounds  which  are  before  them — 
viz.,  the  sounds  of  the  animals  which  they  pursue  or 
watch.  The  ears  of  animals  of  flight  are  turned  back- 
ward, to  give  notice  of  the  approach  of  their  enemy  from 
behind,  whence  he  may  steal  upon  them  unseen.  This 
is  a  critical  distinction,  and  is  mechanical ;  but  it  may  be 
suggested,  and,  I  think,  not  without  probabihty,  that  it 
is  the  effect  of  continual  habit. 


[Heads  of  the  hare  and  wolf,  showing  the  different  manner 
in  which  the  ears  are  turned. — Am.  Ed.] 

The  eyes  of  animals  which  follow  their  prey  by  night, 
as  cats,  owls,  &c.,  possess  a  faculty  not  given  to  those 
of  other  species,  namely,  of  closing  the  pupil  entirely. 


OF  COLUMBUS.  61 

It  is  difficult  even  for  the  imagination  to  conceive  the 
feehngs  of  such  a  man,  at  the  moment  of  so  subhme  a 
discovery.  What  a  bewildering  crowd  of  conjectures 
must  have  thronged  upon  his  mind,  as  to  the  land  which 
lay  before  him,  covered  with  darkness.  That  it  was 
fruitful  was  evident  from  the  vegetables  which  floated 
from  its  shores.  He  thought,  too,  that  he  perceived  in 
the  balmy  air  the  fragrance  of  aromatic  groves.  The 
moving  light  which  he  had  beheld,  proved  that  it  was  the 
residence  of  man.  But  what  were  its  inhabitants?  Were 
they  like  those  of  other  parts  of  the  globe ;  or  were  they 
some  strange  and  monstrous  race,  such  as  the  imagina- 
tion in  those  times  was  prone  to  give  to  all  remote  and 
unknown  regions?  Had  he  come  upon  some  wild  island, 
far  in  the  Indian  seas;  or  was  this  the  famed  Cipango 
itself,  the  object  of  his  golden  fancies?  A  thousand 
speculations  of  the  kind  must  have  swarmed  upon  him, 
as  he  w^atched  for  the  night  to  pass  away;  wondering 
whether  the  morning  light  would  reveal  a  savage  wilder- 
ness, or  dawn  upon  spicy  groves,  and  glittering  fanes,  and 
gilded  cities,  and  all  the  splendors  of  oriental  civihzation. 


CHAPTER  XI. 

First  Landing  of  Columbus  in  the  J\*ew  World. — Cruise 
among  the  Bahama  Islands. — Discovery  of  Cuba  and 
Hispaniola.      [1492.] 

When  the  day  dawned,  Columbus  saw  before  him  a 
level  and  beautiful  island,  several  leagues  in  extent,  of 
great  freshness  and  verdure,  and  covered  w'nh  trees  like 
a  continual  orchard.  Though  every  thing  appeared  in 
the  wild  luxuriance  of  untamed  nature,  yet  the  island  was 
evidently  populous,  for  the  inhabitants  were  seen  issuing 
from  the  woods,  and  running  from  all  parts  to  the  shore. 
They  were  all  perfectly  naked,  and  from  their  attitudes 
6  I. 


286 


A  VISIT  TO   PALOS. 


residence  of  Martin  Alonzo  or  Vicente  Yafiez  Pinzon, 
in  the  time  of  Columbus. 


We  now  arrived  at  the  church  of  St.  George,  in  the 
porch  of  which  Columbus  first  proclaimed  to  the  inhabi- 
tants of  Palos  the  order  of  the  sovereigns,  that  they 
should  furnish  him  with  ships  for  his  great  voyage  of  dis- 
covery. This  edifice  has  lately  been  thoroughly  repaired, 
and,  being  of  sohd  mason-work,  promises  to  stand  for 
ages,  a  monument  of  the  discoverers.  It  stands  outside 
of  the  village,  on  the  brow  of  a  hill,  looking  along  a  little 
valley  toward  the  river.  The  remains  of  a  Moorish 
arch  prove  it  to  have  been  a  mosque  in  former  times  ; 
just  above  it,  on  the  crest  of  the  hill,  is  the  ruin  of  a 
Moorish  castle. 

I  paused  in  the  porch,  and  endeavored  to  recall  the 
interesting  scene  that  had  taken  place  there,  when  Co- 
lumbus, accompanied  by  the  zealous  friar  Juan  Perez, 
caused  the  public  notary  to  read  the  royal  order  in  pres- 
ence of  the  astonished  alcaldes,  regidors,  and  alguazils  ; 
but  it  is  difficult  to  conceive  the  consternation  that  must 
have  been  struck  into  so  remote  a  little  community,  by 
this  sudden  apparition  of  an  entire  stranger  among  them, 
bearing  a  command  that  they  should  put  their  persons 
and  ships  at  his  disposal,  and  sail  with  him  away  into  the 
unknown  wilderness  of  the  ocean. 

The  interior  of  the  church  has  nothing  remarkable, 


THE   COTTON  PLANT.  335 

work  of  creation  and  the  work  of  grace  revealed  in  the 
word  of  God.  Proofs  corroborative  of  the  authenticity 
of  the  Bible,  have  been  gathered  from  those  very  sources 
which  formerly  were  applied  to  by  the  skeptic  for  his 
sharpest  weapons  ;  and  at  this  moment,  (such  is  the  secu- 
rity with  which  Christianity  may  regard  the  progress  of 
knowledge,)  there  does  not  exist  in  our  own  country,  nor, 
so  far  as  I  am  aware,  in  any  other,  one  philosopher  of 
eminence  who  has  ventured  to  confront  Christianity  and 
philosophy,  as  manifestly  contradictory.  May  we  not 
venture  to  hope  that,  in  a  very  short  time,  the  weak  darts 
of  minor  spirits,  which  from  time  to  time  are  still  permit- 
ted to  assail  our  bulwarks,  will  be  also  quenched,  and  the 
glorious  Gospel,  set  free  from  all  the  oppositions  of  sci- 
ence falsely  so  called,  shall  walk  hand  in  hand  over  the 
earth  with  a  philosophy  always  growing  in  humility,  be- 
cause every  day  becoming  more  genuine.     C.  J.  C.  D. 


TWELFTH  WEEK— MONDAY. 

VEGETABLE  SUBSTANCES  USED  FOR  WEAVING. THE  COTTON- 
PLANT. 

The  cotton-plant,  another  vegetable  substance,  exten- 
sively used  in  manufactures,  differs  materially  from  that 
already  described,  in  its  properties,  appearance,  and  hab- 
its. Instead  of  being  generally  diffused  over  temperate 
climates,  it  belongs  more  properly  to  the  torrid  zone,  and 
the  regions  bordering  on  it  ;  and  instead  of  being  chiefly 
confined  to  one  species,  as  to  its  peculiar  and  useful  qual- 
ities, its  varieties  seem  scarcely  to  have  any  limit,  extend- 
ing from  an  herb*  of  a  foot  or  two  in  height,  to  a  treef 

*  Gossypium  herbaceum,  or  common  herbaceous  cotton-plant. 

t  Bombax  ceiba,  or  American  silU  cotton-tree. — [The  Baobab,  or 
Adansonia  di^itata,  an  enormous  and  long-Hved  tree,  also  belongs  to 
this  family.  But  it  is  incorrect  to  call  these  trees  "  varieties  "  of  the 
cotton  plant.  They  are  nearly  allied  to  it,  indeed,  but  they  stand  in  dif- 
ferent divisions  of  the  great  order  of  inahace  e,  or  mallows  ;  and  the 
downy  contents  of  their  pods  are  of  little  use  compared  with  true  cotton. 
— Am.  Ed.] 


378  GLOSSARY. 

Coup  de.  main,  (French  term,)  a  military  expression,  denoting  an  in- 
stantaneous, sudden,  unexpected  attack  upon  an  enemy. 

Dulce  et  decorum  est  pro  putria  mori.  It  is  delightful  and  glorious  to 
die  for  one's  country. 

Effigies  Seb.  Caboti  Angli  filii  Joannis  Caboti  militis  aurati.  As 
will  be  seen  by  the  text,  where  this  inscription  occurs,  (p.  121,) 
there  is  an  ambiguity  in  the  application  of  the  last  two  words.  The 
other  part  of  the  inscription,  may  be  rendered,  "  the  portrait  (or 
likeness)  of  Sebastian  Cabot,  of  England,  son  of  John  Cabot." 
Miles,  or  militis,  means,  literally,  a  warrior,  or  soldier,  or  officer 
of  the  army  ;  and  in  the  English  law,  sometimes  indicates  a  knight. 
Auraius,  or  aurati,  means  gilt,  gilded,  or  decked  with  gold.  Eques 
means  a  horseman,  or  knight,  who  was  frequently  called  eques  aura- 
ius, because,  anciently,  none  but  knights  were  allowed  to  beautify 
their  armor,  and  other  habiliments,  with  gold. 

E71  masse,  in  a  body,  in  the  mass,  altogether. 

Eques,  and  Eques  auratus.     See  Effigies. 

Fascine,  {p\.  fascines,)  a  bundle  of  fagots,  or  small  branches  of  trees, 
or  sticks  of  wood,  bound  together,  for  filling  ditches,  &c. 

Formula,  {\A.  formulae, )  a  prescribed  form  or  order. 

GeodcBllc,  relating  to  the  art  of  measuring  surfaces. 

Gramina,  grasses. 

Green  Mountain  Boys,  a  term  applied,  during  the  Revolutionary  War, 
to  the  inhabitants  of  Vermont,  (Green  Mountain,)  particularly  those 
who  were  in  the  army. 

Gymnotus,  the  electric  eel. 

Habeas  Corpus,  "you  may  have  the  body."  A  writ,  as  it  has  been 
aptly  termed,  of  personal  freedom  ;  which  secures,  to  any  individual, 
who  may  be  imprisoned,  the  privilege  of  having  his  cause  imme- 
diately removed  to  the  highest  court,  that  the  judges  may  decide 
whether  there  is  ground  for  his  imprisonment  or  not. 

Hipparchus,  a  celebrated  mathematician  and  astronomer  of  Nicoea,  in 
Bithynia,  who  died  12.5  years  before  the  Christian  era.  He  was 
the  first  after  Thales  and  Sulpicius  Gallus,  who  found  out  the  exact 
time  of  eclipses,  of  which  he  made  a  calculation  for  600  years.  He  is 
supposed  to  have  been  the  first,  who  reduced  astronomy  to  a  science, 
and  prosecuted  the  study  of  it  systematically. 

Loyalists,  Royalists,  Refugees,  and  Tories.  In  the  times  of  the  Revo- 
lution, these  terms  were  used  as  technical  or  party  names,  and  were 
sometimes  applied  indiscriminately.  Strictl)"^  speaking,  however. 
Loyalists,  were  those  whose  feelings  or  opinions  were  in  fiivor  of 
the  mother  country,  but  who  declined  taking  part  in  the  Revolu- 
tion ;  Royalists,  were  those  who  preferred  or  favored,  a  kingly  gov- 
ernment ;  Refugees,  were  those  who  fled  from  the  country  and 
sought  the  protection  of  the  British  ;  and  Tories,  were  those,  who 
actually  opposed  the  war,  and  took  part  with  the  enemy,  aiding 
them  by  ail  the  means  in  their  power. 

Magnetic  Variation,  a  deviation  of  the  needle  in  the  mariner's  com- 
pass, from  an  exact  North  and  South  direction. 

Master-at-arms,  an  officer  appointed  to  take  charge  of  the  small  arms 
in  a  ship  of  war,  and  to  teach  the  officers  and  crew  the  exercise  of 


18mo.  pages. 

MARY   BOND   IN  A   SICK-ROOM.  129 

ring  it  all  the  time.  Of  course  I  do  not  make  it 
every  time  it  is  wanted,  for  sometimes,  when  I 
want  it  extra  good,  I  boil  and  stir  it  a  full  hour, 
and  then  I  put  it  away  in  a  close  vessel  and  in  a 
cool  place.  For  Raymond,  or  for  any  one  get- 
ting well,  and  free  from  fever,  I  put  in  a  third 
wheat  flour,  and  half  milk.  You  see  it  is  a  very 
simple  process,  sir." 

"Yes — simple  enough.  But  it  is  to  these 
simple  processes  that  people  will  not  give  their 
attention." 

Mary  had  the  happiness  of  seeing  Raymond 
sitting  up  before  their  parents  returned,  and  when 
they  drove  into  the  great  gate,  and  up  the  lane, 
he  was  in  his  rocking-chair  by  the  window,  watch- 
ing for  them.  They  had  heard  of  his  illness,  and 
were  most  thankful  to  find  him  so  far  recovered. 
The  Doctor  chanced  to  be  present  when  they 
arrived.  '' O,  Doctor  !"  said  Mrs.  Bond,  after 
the  first  greetings  were  over,  "how  shall  I  ever 
be  grateful  enough  to  you  ?" 

"  I  have  done  very  little,  Mrs.  Bond,"  replied 
the  honest  Doctor.  "  In  Raymond's  case,  medi- 
cine could  do  httle  or  nothing.  Nature  had  been 
overtasked,  and  wanted  rest  and  soothing.  Under 
God,  Raymond  owes  his  recovery  to  Mary." 

"O,  mother  !"  exclaimed  Raymond,  bursting 
into  tears,  "  she  is  the  best  sister  in  the  world  !" 

"  She  is  the  best  sister  in  the  two  worlds  !" 
cried  little  Grace  Bond,  a  child  of  five  years  old. 

A  source  of  true  comfort  and  happiness  is  such 
a  child  and  such  a  sister  as  Mary  Bond  ! — a  light 


138  THE   LOST   CHILDREN. 

US,  as  soon  as  we  are  missed  ;  let  us  keep  on 
and  perhaps  we  may  find  some  other  path." 

The  poor  children  proceeded  on  their  course, 
unconscious  that  every  step  was  taking  them  deep- 
er into  the  forest,  until,  completely  bewildered  by 
the  thick  darkness,  and  overcome  with  fatigue,  they 
could  go  no  further.  "  Let  us  pray  to  God,  and 
then  we  can  he  down,  and  die  in  peace,"  said 
Geor2;e  ;  and  the  innocent  children  knelt  down  on 
the  fallen  leaves,  and  Hsped  their  simple  prayers, 
as  they  were  accustomed  to  do  at  their  mother's 
side. 

"We  must  try  to  find  some  shelter,  George," 
said  Kate,  as  they  arose  from  their  knees,  "  this 
chill  air  will  kill  you,  even  if  we  escape  the  wild 
beasts."  As  she  spoke,  the  light  of  a  young 
moon  which  faintly  illumined  the  depths  of  the 
wood,  enabled  her  to  discover  a  hollow  log  lying 
near.  Tearing  off  some  branches  from  the  brittle 
hemlock  tree,  she  piled  them  around  the  log,  in 
such  a  manner,  as  to  form  a  sort  of  penthouse  ; 
and,  placing  George  within  the  more  effectual 
shelter  of  the  log,  she  lay  down  by  his  side.  Worn 
with  fatigue,  notwithstanding  their  fears,  the  chil- 
dren soon  fell  into  a  profound  sleep  ;  and  the 
beams  of  the  morning  sun,  shining  through  the 
branches  which  formed  their  covering,  first  awoke 
them  from  their  peaceful  slumbers. 

Their  little  hearts  swelled  with  gratitude  to  the 
merciful  God,  who  had  preserved  them  through 
the  perils  of  the  night,  and  the  morning  hymn  which 
was  wont  to  resound  within  the   walls  of  their 


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